Hebrew- (Hebrew עִבְרִית - “Hebrew language”) - a group of related languages of the Semitic branch of the Afroasian, or Semitic-Hamitic, family of languages that developed from biblical or classical Hebrew, also called Hebrew .
Hebraic linguists distinguish the following periods in the development of Hebrew:
- Classical Hebrew
- Biblical Hebrew
- Golden Era of Hebrew (1200 B.C.–500 B.C.)
- Silver Era of Hebrew (500 BC -60 BC) - Numerous borrowings from Aramaic are introduced
- Mishnaic Hebrew - Influenced by Greek and Farsi
- Modern Hebrew is a language artificially recreated in the late 19th - early 19th century by Jewish settlers in Palestine. It is currently one of the official languages of the State of Israel.
Alphabet
Letter ( Inscription at the end of the word) - Name - Sound
Writing Features
For Hebrew (as well as for Arabic, Aramaic and some other ancient Semitic languages), the following writing features are characteristic:
- Texts are written from right to left ("back to front" compared to European languages);
- In classical Hebrew, only consonants are transmitted by letters, vowels are guessed by the reader. In modern practice, several hint systems are used - vowels, which help the reader to restore the missing vowel sounds.
The following voice systems exist:
- Full vowel - all vowels are indicated by special icons - vowels - above, below or to the side of the letter. Full vocalization is used in the texts of the Bible, some verses and children's books.
- Unvoiced letter - vowels are not used, but some letters are added to indicate vowels. This is the main style of modern Hebrew.
- Partial voicing is a hybrid of the two previous styles: additional letters to indicate vowels, and where this is not enough, also vowels. It is used in difficult places where it is necessary to clarify the reading of a word or in texts designed for readers who do not know Hebrew well enough, for example, in textbooks.
Literature
- "Essays on the History of Hebrew" by Professor Chaim Rabin
- Several Modern Hebrew lessons for Russian speakers
- Hebrew alphabet, rules of reading and vowels
ANCIENT HEBREW, a language spoken in ancient Palestine. Until about the 2nd century, it was both in oral and written use, then it was used as the written language of the Jews of the Middle Ages and the New Age. An artificially revived form of the Hebrew language is Hebrew. The Hebrew language is recorded in epigraphic monuments (from the end of the 10th century BC) and in a set of texts that formed the canon of the Old Testament by the 3rd century BC. The Hebrew language of the last centuries BC and the first centuries of our era is reflected in the early rabbinical literature (the so-called Mishnaic Hebrew).
Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite subgroup of the Semitic languages. In the language of epigraphic monuments, Israeli (northern) and Jewish (southern) dialects are distinguished; in the Old Testament, the geographical variation of the language is not traced. The linguistic specificity of archaic poetry (for example, the Song of Deborah in the 5th chapter of the Book of Judges) and late prose monuments (the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, etc.) is due to the time of creation of these monuments and their genre features.
There are 23 phonemes in the consonantism of the Hebrew language (proto-Semitic interdental, emphatic lateral, uvular are lost; the non-emphatic lateral ŝ is preserved). All consonants except guttural and r can be doubled. Voiceless and voiced stop phonemes (p, t, k, b, d, g) have spirant variants with a tendency to turn them into independent phonemes. Vocalism has 7 full-vowel phonemes (å, a, ä, e, i, o, u) and 4 reduced ones (ǝ, ă, å, a), the phonological status of reduced vowels (in particular, the nature of the opposition "ǝ - zero sound") not quite clear. The stress is phonologically significant (compare bǻnu 'in us' - bǻnú 'they built'), although most word forms have the stress on the last syllable. The mobility of stress during inflection led to the emergence of a complex system of vocal alternations.
In nominal morphology - opposition of masculine gender (not marked) and feminine (with indicators -å, -Vt), singular and plural (masculine indicator -im, feminine -ot). In some types of names, ablaut is observed when forming the plural (compare mäläk ‘king’ - plural målåkim). The indicator of the dual number -аyim is attached to the limited circle of lexemes. Case relations are expressed analytically (the direct object is formed by the preposition?et; belonging - by matching the vertex and dependent name, sometimes with phonetic changes: dåbår ‘word’, dåbar dawid ‘David’s word’). There is an ending -å with a directional meaning (yamm-å ‘to the sea’). The definite article has the form ha-.
In verbal morphology, a reduced system of breeds (5 breeds), an "internal" (apophonic) passive, suffixal (perfect) and prefixal (imperfect) conjugations expressing past and future tenses (compare kåtab 'he wrote' - yiktob 'he will write' ). The meaning of the present tense is expressed by the active participle (hu koteb ‘he writes’). In a narrative text, combinations of the perfect and imperfect forms with wå/wa ‘and ‘ have the opposite meanings of these forms without this conjunction: compare wǝkåtab ‘he will write ‘ (wǝ with perfect) - wayyiktob ‘he wrote ‘ (wa with imperfect); the interpretation of this phenomenon remains controversial. There are moods: imperative (kǝtob 'write'), cohortative (only in the 1st person: ?äšmǝr-å 'yes I will keep'), some verbs have jussiv (compare the imperfect uåkum 'he will get up' - jussiv uåkom 'let him get up '). 2 infinitives - conjugate (kǝtob), absolute (kåtob).
The neutral word order is "subject + predicate" in a nominal sentence, "predicate + subject + (direct object)" in a verb. Dependent words follow the vertex ones.
In vocabulary: Arameisms, borrowings from the Akkadian language, the ancient Egyptian language, the ancient Persian language, in the Mishnaic monuments - Greekisms and Latinisms.
The epigraphic monuments of the Hebrew language are written in a Paleo-Hebrew script close to the Phoenician script (a consonantal alphabet with limited use of the signs W, Y and H to represent vowels), which fell out of use in the last centuries BC and was replaced by the so-called square script (see West Semitic script). In the middle of the 1st millennium AD, a system of diacritics was developed for the sequential transmission of vowel phonemes.
Lit.: Gesenius W., Kautzsch E. Gesenius ‘Hebrew grammar. Oxf., 1910. L., 1985, Joüon R., Muraoka T. A grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Roma, 1991-1993. Vol. 1-2.
Dictionaries: Brown F., Driver S. R., Briggs C. A. The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon. Boston, 1906. Peabody, 1996; Kohler L., Baumgartner W., Stamm J. J. The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden a. o., 1994-2000. Vol. 1-5.
Hebrew
ANCIENT HEBREW, or ancient Israelite, was spoken by the ancient Jews of Palestine in the 15th-14th centuries. BC, belongs to the system of Semitic languages and is the dialect of the Hebrew-Phoenician or Canaanite language most known to us. The most important and most numerous monuments of D. e. yaz. preserved in the Bible. With the appearance in the Middle East as a major economic and political force of the Arameans, who owned the main trade routes, D. e. begins to be gradually replaced by Aramaic, especially since the Persian era, when Aramaic became the official language of the western part of the Persian state. Much faster process of displacement of D. e. yaz. went from the time of Alexander the Great, when the Jews who emigrated from Palestine began to speak Greek in Egypt and Asia Minor, and Aramaic in Mesopotamia. In Palestine, the process of displacement was somewhat slower. In this era, D. e. yaz. has already changed somewhat; new morphological and syntactic facts appear in it, many words borrowed from Aramaic, Greek and Latin. However, in the 1st century BC, even here, the Jewish population of the cities already spoke Aramaic, with the exception of a small stratum that was related to the cult and religious schools. The agricultural population, living by subsistence farming and cut off from the cities, continued to speak D. e. much longer; this is evidenced by the rich agricultural terminology found in the Mishnah and other collections of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Starting from the IV century. D. e. yaz. finally ceases to be colloquial. As a language literary and written communications, it continues to be used in subsequent centuries and partly until recently (see Hebrew literature).
By the nature of its roots, D. e., the language is quite close to Aramaic, but contains many elements that bring it closer to the Babylonian language. In type of development, especially in the number of vowels in a word, it occupies a middle position between Classical Arabic and Aramaic; at the same time, it retains many features of a much greater antiquity than those of these latter languages. However, it should be noted that the tradition has preserved for us D. e. yaz. in the form in which it was shortly before the 4th century; in older times it was much richer in grammatical forms, as can be seen from the compound proper names and from some of the older expressions that have survived.
GRAPHIC ARTS D. e. yaz. consists of 22 consonants of the so-called square script, developed gradually from the ancient Aramaic alphabet, which in turn originated from the ancient Phoenician. Vowels are indicated by a system of signs placed under and above the letters, the so-called punctuation, invented no earlier than the 6th century after Christ. era. The oldest inscriptions are inscribed in the Old Phoenician alphabet.
HEBREW ALPHABET
Bibliography:
Gesenius V., Hebrew Grammar, trans. K. Kossovich, St. Petersburg, 1874; Krymsky A., Semitic languages and peoples, part 1, M., 1903; Stade B., Lehrbuch d. Hebraischen Grammatik, Lpz., 1879; Noldecke Th., Die Semitischen Sprachen, Lpz., 1899; Gesenius W., Hebrasche Grammatik, umgearbeitet von E. Kautsch, 28 Aufl., Lpz., 1909; Beer G., Hebraische Grammatik, Sammlung Goschen, Berlin, 1915; Bauer H. und Leander P., Historische Grammatik d. Hebraischen Sprache, Halle, 1916.
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Great Soviet Encyclopedia
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- - The language in which this or that religious doctrine was first stated, written down, and then canonized: Vedic, Hebrew, Pali, Latin, classical Arabic, Old Slavonic and other languages ...
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Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language
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- - TOUCH, -her, -eat; nesov., in what. To stay, to be in severe, precarious condition. K. in ignorance. K. in vices. K. in debauchery...
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Word forms
- - A language characterized by a wide range of social and communicative functions of language in the cultural, political, socio-economic and private life of peoples ...
Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
"Hebrew" in books
Chapter 5 "LANGUAGE FOR OUR PEOPLE" and "LANGUAGE FOR STRANGERS"
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Part I Hebrew Background
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HEBREW
From the book Bibliological Dictionary the author Men AlexanderHEbrew is the language in which the vast majority of the books of the OT are written. In the Bible at times it was called "Canaanite" (Isaiah 19:18) and "Jewish" (Isaiah 36:11). One of its distinguishing features is stability in grammar. respect for many centuries and
Preserved in the books of the Bible (Old Testament, 12-3 centuries BC), as well as in inscriptions on clay shards in Palestine in the 8th century. BC e. - 2 in. n. e. In ancient times, it was called the Canaanite language or was designated by separate tribal dialects (for example, "Jewish"). The language remained colloquial until the first centuries AD. e. Its further stage is the so-called Mishnaic Jewish (the language of the early parts of the Talmud), which is characterized by lexical innovations, an abundance of Arameisms, Greekisms, Latinisms and other borrowings, a number of changes in morphology and syntax. Since compulsory literacy in D. I. was one of the religious dogmas, active possession of it was widespread among Jews in the Middle Ages and in modern times, along with everyday languages (see Yiddish, Ladino); Nadya. a rich religious, philosophical, scientific and artistic literature has been created. Over time, D. I. changed more and more, and its modern "descendant" Hebrew must be considered as a separate language.
Being a Semitic language of the so-called middle stage, D. Ya., in comparison with the Semitic languages of the ancient stage, has an abbreviated system of consonant phonemes and diphthongs, and an increased system of vowels; it has lost case inflection, the verb system has been rearranged.
Consonants include labial stops p, b, dental stops t, t̥, d, sibilants s, s̥, z, š, ś, velar stops k, q (probably post-velar), g, velar fricatives ḫ (graphically the same as ḥ) and γ, pharyngeal ḥ (graphically matched ʕ), ʕ, aspiration h (partially< общесемит. *š), гортанный взрыв ʼ, «полугласные » u̯, i̯, сонорные m, n, l, r. Система гласных фонем должна, по-видимому, реконструироваться как *ā, *ē, *ī, *ō, *a, *i, *u. Первоначально на письме передавались лишь некоторые долгие гласные с помощью гоморганных согласных; позднее было выработано несколько систем диакритических знаков для обозначения гласных (см. Западносемитское письмо).
The root usually includes 3 consonants; a syllable cannot begin with a vowel or two consonants, or end with two consonants. The stress falls on the last syllable with the loss of the final vowel of inflection (for example, case), in some cases - on the penultimate one. In a pause, the stressed vowel can lengthen, and the stress can move to the beginning of the word, having a different effect on the phonetic realization of vowels.
The name is masculine and feminine, singular, plural, dual. Depending on the syntactic role, the name can be in absolute, conjugate ( status constructus) and pre-pronominal ( status pronominalis) states that differ in stress and vowels, for example ʼh̥ōḵ, conjugate h̥oḵ, pre-pronominal h̥ukʼk‑ō ‘law’. Case system in D. I. died out, the locative on ‑ah > ‑ā:ʼā̈räs̥ ‘earth’, ʻars̥‑ā ‘on the ground’ has been survivingly preserved. There is a definite article ha- (< *han‑?), после которого удлиняется начальный согласный: mā̈läk ‘царь’ (неопредел.), hammā̈läk ‘царь’ (определ.). Прилагательные отличаются от существительных преимущественно синтаксически; относительные прилагательные (нисбы) образуются при помощи суффиксов ‑ī, ‑ai̯, ‑ā̈ (муж. род), ‑īt (жен. род), ‑ii̯īm, ‑īm, ‑ii̯ōṯ (мн. ч.). Числительные в Д. я. общесемитские. Личные самостоятельные местоимения вне именных предложений служат лишь для подчёркивания лица ; в глаголе лицо выражается субъектным показателем. Притяжательные и объектные местоимения - суффиксальные (энклитики). Глагол имеет двухвидовую систему: имперфектив с префиксально-суффиксальным субъектным спряжением и перфектив с суффиксальным спряжением. Системы наклонений и пассива слабо развиты. Как и во всех семитских языках, существует система пород . Порядок слов глагольного предложения PSO, в именном предложении обычен обратный порядок, связка (именная, глагольная или местоименная) в нём факультативна. Своеобразен синтаксис числительных: числительное ʼäh̥aḏ ‘один’ - прилагательное; числительные от 3 до 10 и от 13 до 19 ставятся в женском роде при исчисляемом объекте мужского рода и в мужском роде при объекте женского рода; числительные от 100 и выше - существительные, управляющие исчисляемым объектом как определением . Порядковые числительные образуются как относительные прилагательные на ‑ī.
Vocabulary D. I. predominantly primordially Semitic; there are Aramaic, Egyptian, Akkadian, later - Iranian, Greek, Indian borrowings.
- Trinity I. G., Grammar of the Hebrew language, 2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1908;
- Dyakonov I. M., Languages of ancient Western Asia, M., 1967;
- Gesenius W., Hebräische Grammatik, 28 Aufl., Lpz., 1909;
- Same, bearb. und verfasst von G. Bergsträsser, Bd 1-2, 29 Aufl., Lpz., 1918-29;
- bauer H., Leander P., Historische Grammatik der hebräischen Sprache des Alten Testamentes, Bd 1, Lfg. 1-3, Halle, 1918-22;
- Segal M. H., A grammar of Mishnaic Hebrew, Oxf., 1927;
- beer G., Meyer R., Hebräische Grammatik, Bd 1-2, 2 Aufl., B., 1952-1955;
- Brockelmann C., Hebräische Syntax, Neukirchen, 1956.
- Ben Jehūdhāh E., Thesaurus totius hebraitatis, v. 1-17, Jerusalem - B., 1908-1940;
- Gesenius W., Buhl F., Hebräisches und aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament, 17 Aufl., ;
- Kohler L., Baumgartner W., Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti libros, Leiden, 1953; Suppl., Leiden, 1958.
In biblical times, the Hebrew language was called "Canaanite" (Isaiah 19:18) and "Jewish" (Isaiah 36:11). In biblical studies, it is called "Biblical Hebrew".
The Hebrew language belongs to the group of Semitic languages. They were spoken over a wide area from the Mediterranean Sea in the west, to the mountains beyond the Euphrates River valley in the east, from Armenia in the north, and to the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula in the south.
The name "Semitic" comes from the name of Shem, the eldest son of Noah.
From the end of the II to the XIX century. after R.X. Hebrew was a dead language. Educated Jews knew Hebrew, wrote books in it, prayed in it, communicated with Jews from other countries (if they did not have another common language) - but, as a rule, did not use it in everyday speech. Until now, some Orthodox Jews assign Hebrew the role of a sacred language in which one cannot discuss worldly problems, and use Hebrew only in the synagogue. From their point of view, Hebrew is the language that the Lord spoke to Adam.
The revival of Hebrew as a spoken language occurred at the end of the 19th century. when Jews from different countries began to move to Palestine. After Israel's independence in 1948, Hebrew became the official language of the Jewish state.
Hebrew exists in several pronunciation norms, the most important of which are Ashkenazi (among immigrants from Eastern Europe) and Sephardic (immigrants from the Mediterranean and the Middle East). The latter became dominant, close, as is believed, to the ancient pronunciation.
The Hebrew language has its own striking features. One of them is that abstract concepts are difficult to convey in the Hebrew language, it is characterized by brevity and specific imagery. The language of images is most often based on the realities of everyday life and therefore does not present any particular difficulties for translation, but sometimes it is difficult to understand. The Holy Scriptures use all the standard figures of speech and literary devices to convey figurative speech, for example, "star" or "lion" denotes a hero, "rock" - symbolizes a refuge, "light" - life or Divine revelation, "darkness" - disasters or ignorance. Descriptions of the organs of the body are widely used in order to show the state of a person, for example, the words “... our womb clung to the ground” (Ps. 43:26) mean sorrow.
In the Hebrew language, it is widespread to transfer terms describing individual parts of the body or human activity to inanimate nature, as a result of which nature becomes anthropomorphic. For example, it is said about the "head" of the mountain, the "face" ("face") of the Earth, the "mouth" (entrance) of the cave, the "procession" (flow) of water.
In Hebrew, events are not simply described, but depicted. They are reproduced as if they are happening before your eyes. Such typical Hebrew expressions as “he got up and went”, “he lifted his eyes and saw”, “he lifted up his voice and wept”, show how expressive and powerful this language is.
There is a deep correspondence between language and biblical Old Testament thought. Many of the names of people and places in the Old Testament become clearer with a knowledge of the Hebrew language. The very sacred name of God, "Lord" (Yahweh), comes from a Hebrew verb meaning "to be" (or "to bring into being").