Poetry by K.F. Ryleev. The originality of Decembrist poetry was most fully manifested in the work of Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev 1795-1826. He created effective poetry, poetry of the highest intensity and heroic pathos. Among Ryleev’s lyrical works, the most famous was and, perhaps, still remains the poem Citizen 1824, banned at one time, but distributed illegally, well known to readers.
This work is a fundamental success for Ryleev the poet, perhaps even the pinnacle of Decembrist lyricism in general.
In the poem, the image of a new lyrical hero is created. Will I, at a fateful time, disgrace the citizen san And imitate you, pampered tribe, Reborn Slavs? No, I am not capable of dragging out my youthful life in the arms of voluptuousness, In shameful idleness, And languishing with a seething soul Under the heavy yoke of autocracy.
Let the young men, who have not guessed their fate, do not want to comprehend the destiny of the century And do not prepare for the future struggle For the oppressed freedom of man.
Let them cast a cold gaze on the misfortunes of their homeland with a cool soul, And do not read into them their future shame And the just descendants of reproach. They will reveal themselves when the people rise up, Find them in the arms of idle bliss And, in a stormy rebellion seeking free rights, Find in them neither Brutus nor Riegi. Ryleev created the image of a citizen in the Decembrist sense of the word.
He embodies the high virtues of love for the fatherland, courage, determination, and willingness to sacrifice oneself. However, Ryleev departs from the usual situation for civil poetry of the early 19th century - the clash of a hero with tyrants or the clash of an exalted poet with corrupt flatterers. Citizen Ryleeva does not so much fight his enemies as convince possible allies. The pampered tribe of reborn Slavs are not tyrants, not flatterers, not slaves, and not even fools. These are young men with a cold soul, indifferent, selfish.
From the point of view of the Decembrists, with their ideals of a person of deed, action, and feat, such indifferent young men are immoral and in some sense worse than enemies. The phrase “Tribe of Reborn Slavs” is especially noteworthy. For Ryleev, a Slav is not just a conditional ancestor, but a certain national character - a valiant, courageous, stern, highly moral, freedom-loving person. The modern pampered tribe is so indifferent, idle, passive because it has lost its national identity; these are Slavs, but degenerated.
It is interesting that the poem lacks traditional motifs of doubt, sadness and disappointment, as well as the motif of the hero’s doom. The hero excitedly convinces them, and does not stand in proud poses in silent solitude.
Ryleev avoids the stereotypical conflict of good and evil; rather, he has a conflict of faith with unbelief, conviction with indifference. The theme barely outlined by Ryleev became leading in classical Russian literature. Ryleev's Dumas are dedicated to the depiction of various high and low examples of national character. The duma genre was explained by Ryleev himself as elegies about heroes, which were sung in memory of them by the ancient Slavs. True, in the preface to the Dumas they were published as a separate book in 1825, Ryleev indicated that he adopted the idea of the genre from the Polish poet Nemtsevich.
However, unlike Nemtsevich’s Historical Singings, to which notes were attached, Ryleev created works not for singing, but for reading. Nevertheless, a debate flared up in criticism about the nature of the duma genre; during the discussion, an opinion was expressed about the synthesis of elegy and heroide in the duma of F. Bulgarin, but then more real genre sources were discovered - poetic tragedy of the 18th century and the genre of historical elegy, created in the early 19th century K.N. Batyushkov.
The duma genre combines elegiac lyricism, landscapes of romantic elegy, evening or night, the shine of the moon, the howl of wind, lightning, etc. and the stormy catastrophic passions of the heroes of tragedies. This genre form allowed Ryleev to portray the bright characters of national heroes, including positive examples - Dimitry Donskoy, Boris Godunov, etc., and negative ones - Svyatopolk the Accursed. A.S. Pushkin made critical remarks about the fact that all the heroes speak the same language.
The correctly noted feature of the style of Ryleev’s Dumas can be explained by the fact that the Decembrists had their own understanding of historicism - for them, the essence of the people always remains unchanged, therefore Ryleev does not care about revealing the individual traits of his heroes, unifies them, creating a generalized image of the Russian person. Thus, the Dumas, despite the diversity of the persons depicted in them, are united into an artistic whole by the image of a single hero. The search for ways to actively influence society led Ryleev to the genre of the poem.
Ryleev's first poem was Voinarovsky's poem 1823-1824. The poem has a lot in common with Dumas, but there is also a fundamental novelty in Voinarovsky Ryleev strives for authentic historical coloring and truthfulness of psychological characteristics. Ryleev created a new hero, disappointed, but not in worldly and secular pleasures, not in love or glory, Ryleev's hero is a victim of fate, which did not allow him to realize his powerful life potential. Resentment towards fate, towards the ideal of a heroic life that did not take place, alienates Ryleev’s hero from those around him, turning him into a tragic figure.
The tragedy of the incompleteness of life, its unrealization in real actions and events will become an important discovery not only in Decembrist poetry, but also in Russian literature in general. Voinarovsky is the only completed poem by Ryleev, although besides it he also began several more by Nalivaiko, Gaydamak, and Paley. It so happened that researchers write that Ryleev’s poems were not only propaganda of Decembrism in literature, but also a poetic biography of the Decembrists themselves, including the December defeat and years of hard labor.
Reading the poem about Voinarovsky, the Decembrists involuntarily thought about themselves. Ryleev’s poem was perceived both as a poem of a heroic deed and as a poem of tragic premonitions. The fate of a political exile thrown into distant Siberia, a meeting with his civilian wife - all this is almost a prediction. Ryleev's readers were especially struck by his prediction in Nalivaika's Confession from Nalivaiko's poem. I know that destruction awaits the one who first rises up against the oppressors of the people. Fate has already doomed me.
But where, tell me, when was freedom redeemed without sacrifice? I will die for my native land. I feel it, I know it. And joyfully, holy father, I bless my lot! The fulfilled prophecies of Ryleev's poetry once again prove the fruitfulness of the romantic principle that life and poetry are one. 9.
End of work -
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Poetry of the Decembrists
Ideologists and figures of the Russian revolutionary movement of 1815-1825. The Decembrists appeared. Since 1816, with the exception of the early, pre-December events... The events of 1812, which revealed immense, but crushed by heavy oppression... This pushed advanced social forces onto the path of revolutionary struggle. This is how the first in the history of Russia arose...
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Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev was born into a poor noble family. The Patriotic War of 1812 found him when he was studying in the cadet corps in St. Petersburg. The young man strove to go to the front, his patriotic impulse was reflected in his first literary experiments - the odes “Love for the Fatherland”, “Prince of Smolensky”, “Victory Song to the Heroes”, where the aspiring poet glorified heroes who were ready to give their lives for the fatherland.
In 1814, Ryleev received the rank of ensign and took part in foreign campaigns of the Russian army, which seriously influenced his worldview: “I became infected with free-thinking... during the campaigns in France.” For several years, Ryleev serves in the army, but comes to a disappointing conclusion: “Current service requires scoundrels, and, fortunately, I cannot be one.” The young man leaves the service, resigns and moves to St. Petersburg, where he finds like-minded people in the circles of free-thinking metropolitan writers.
Soon an event occurred that made the whole of St. Petersburg start talking about Ryleev the poet: his unprecedentedly bold satire “To the Temporary Worker” (1820) was published in the popular magazine “Nevsky Spectator”.
At this time, one of the central figures in the Russian political arena was A.A. Arakcheev is the all-powerful favorite of Alexander I, before whom the whole country was in awe. Arakcheev held the most prominent positions in the state: Minister of War, Chairman of the Military Department of the State Council - he actually led the country. Arakcheev's policy involved the introduction of cane discipline in the army, the brutal suppression of any manifestation of public discontent. The “crown” of Arakcheev’s activities was the organization of military settlements, where serfs had to engage not only in peasant labor, but also bear the heavy burden of military service. In the “arrogant temporary worker, both vile and insidious,” depicted in Ryleev’s poem “To the temporary worker,” contemporaries unmistakably recognized Arakcheev.
The central idea of Ryleev’s satire is an anti-tyrannical idea, and manifested in its extreme form: the poet believed that any tyrant would face inevitable punishment - he would fall victim to the people’s anger (“The people are terribly enraged by tyranny!”), or will be defeated by a tyrant-fighting hero (“Tyrant, tremble! He may be born - / Or Cassius, or Brutus. Or Cato, the enemy of the kings! ").
In the satire “To the Temporary Worker” the idea of the purpose of the poet is clearly heard. From Ryleev’s point of view, a true poet must glorify heroes who sacrifice themselves for the freedom of their people: “Oh, how on the lyre I strive to glorify him / Whoever will save my Fatherland from you!”
In this poem, Ryleev turns to the genre of high satire, his style is distinguished by solemnity, appeal to book vocabulary, is replete with complex syntactic constructions, numerous exclamations convey the emotional intensity of the work. The poem organically combines two layers of pictures of Russian reality, unmistakably recognizable by the poet’s contemporaries (“By burdensome taxes, he brought them to poverty, / Villages deprived them of their former beauty”) and scenes from Roman history, depicting the death of Caesar at the hands of Brutus, Cato’s tyrannical struggle... the use of such a technique gives universality of the conclusions to which Ryleev comes:
But if evil fate falls in love with the villain,
And he will save you from a fair reward,
All tremble, tyrant! For evil and treachery
Your posterity will pronounce its verdict on you!
The poem “To the Temporary Worker” marked the beginning of K.F.’s active political and creative activity. Ryleeva.
The originality of K.F.’s creativity Ryleeva
The characteristic features of Ryleev's lyrics are a satirical orientation and civic pathos; unwavering commitment to anti-tyrannical themes, which absorbs all other thematic layers, giving them a specific interpretation. Thus, the themes of the poet and poetry, love and friendship, important for Ryleev’s work, are filled with high civic pathos. In the poem "<Гражданин>"(1824) the ideal of human destiny is affirmed, which is to prepare for the future struggle / For the oppressed freedom of man." Ryleev’s lyrical hero remains faithful to this ideal in any life situation. Even when his heart is filled with tender feelings for his beloved, he does not deviate from his credo:
Love doesn't come to mind:
Alas! my homeland is suffering, -
The soul is in the excitement of heavy thoughts
Now he longs for freedom.
"To N.N.", (1824 or 1825)
The positive heroes of Ryleev's lyrics are endowed with strong passions, but these passions are subordinated to one goal - the goal of high civil service. From Ryleev’s point of view, no grief can break a person if he remembers his highest destiny. For example, in the poem “Vera Nikolaevna Stolypina” (1825), written in connection with the death of the progressive statesman A.A., who was close to Decembrist circles. Stolypin, the poet reminds his widow of her “sacred duty” to “educate beautiful children” - to raise her sons as true citizens, ready to “fall beyond their native land.”
Genre of Duma
In 1821 - 1823 K.F. Ryleev creates the poetic cycle “Dumas”.
Duma is an epic-lyrical genre of Ukrainian folklore, widespread in the 15th - 17th centuries. The plots of the thoughts usually consisted of stories of the heroic battles of the Cossacks with the Turks and Poles. In Russian poetry of the 19th century, duma began to be understood as works that touched upon significant social problems.
In the preface to a separate edition of “Dum” (1825), Ryleev clearly defines the goal that he sought to achieve in his works: reviving in the memory of his contemporaries the glorious exploits of his ancestors, the best pages of the history of the Russian state - “this is a sure way to instill in the people a strong attachment to the Motherland.” .
Ryleev's thoughts are built according to one compositional principle: a description of the scene of action, an image of a hero thinking about the freedom of the fatherland, patriotic, civic edification, sounding in the monologue of the central character.
The entire history of Russia was presented to the Decembrist poet as a tough struggle between heroic tyrant fighters and villainous despots. Russian people, according to Ryleev, are distinguished by their original love of freedom. Most of the plots of doom are based on turning points in history, when the heroes are faced with a choice, but they always prefer only one path - the path of fighting tyrants.
History is perceived by Ryleev as a process, so turning to the past is always an attempt to comprehend the present. The heroes of Ryleev’s thoughts are people of different eras (Svyatoslav, Dmitry Donskoy, Ermak, Volynsky, etc.), but the poet invariably puts into their mouths passionate sermons of freedom, liberty, citizenship in the spirit of Decembrist declarations. Thus, in the Duma “Dmitry Donskoy”, Prince Dmitry on the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo addresses the Russian army with a fiery speech, in which he calls “not to bow your humble head before the tyrant”, to fight for “the holy freedom of the forefathers / And the ancient rights of citizens”, “for freedom, truth and law." Ryleev did not intentionally distort history; the direct correlation of the events of the past with the present was important to him.
A.S. Pushkin noted a number of weaknesses in the thoughts of K.F. Ryleeva. In particular, he wrote that historical figures look unreliable and unconvincing, since it is impossible to combine the events of the distant past and the ideas of modern love of freedom. However, Pushkin did not extend his criticism to the Duma “Ivan Susanin”, in which Ryleev managed to recreate a historically truthful folk character. Ivan Susanin, a peasant who does not make lengthy speeches of educational content, but acts in accordance with his ideas about goodness and truth, demonstrating genuine patriotism, which is inherent in the Russian people.
Ryleev’s favorite hero in the “Duma” cycle is undoubtedly Volynsky, an associate of Peter I. It is he who is the bearer of the beliefs most dear to Ryleev: “glorious death for the people!” for the holy truth. / And execution will be a triumph for me!”, “Breathing with love for his homeland, / Yes, he endures everything for her.” The cycle ends with the thought “Derzhavin”, in which Ryleev once again recalls the purpose of the poet, who “put the public good above all the good in the world / And in his fiery verses / glorified Holy virtue.”
Genre of the poem
In 1823, Ryleev created the poem “Voinarovsky,” which was warmly received by his contemporaries. Pushkin highly appreciated this work, noting that the talent of its creator had “matured.”
At the center of the poem is still the hero-tyrant fighter, who, despite defeat, disappointment in his closest associates and exile to distant Yakutia, remains faithful to the ideas of freedom.
The poem “Voinarovsky” had a significant influence on the further development of the genre of Russian romantic poem. Firstly, Ryleev became one of the first romantics who tried to overcome the European tradition of identifying the author and the hero: the author of the poem and his hero Voinarovsky often look at the same events in completely different ways. Secondly, in the poem “Voinarovsky” an attempt is made to combine the civic idea and psychological analysis of the actions and aspirations of the characters.
Inspired by Pushkin’s high assessment of his first poem, Ryleev begins work on the poem “Nalivaiko”. At the center of this work is the struggle of the Ukrainian people with the Poles. Work on the poem was not destined to be completed.
last years of life
In 1823, Ryleev became a member of the Northern Society, and soon became one of its leaders. It was Ryleev’s apartment that became the headquarters of the uprising that took place on December 14. Being a true romantic, he urged his comrades to go to the end in the fight for their ideals: “... let us perish, but others will follow us.”
After the defeat of the uprising during the investigation into the Decembrist case, Ryleev behaved with dignity, took all the blame upon himself, and tried in every possible way to support and encourage his comrades.
Prison is an honor to me, not a reproach,
I am in it for a righteous cause,
And should I be ashamed of those chains,
When I wear them for the Fatherland
(1826?) K.F. Ryleev
“I am the most guilty of all,” he convinced Emperor Nicholas I. “I ask you, sir, forgive them... Execute me alone...”. Ryleev was one of the five Decembrists executed on July 13, 1826.
Creativity of K.F. Ryleev is a unique phenomenon, a phenomenon of cultural and social life of the early 19th century. But for today’s reader, it is not the poet’s work that seems much more significant, but his bright, extraordinary personality. His life position and tragic fate in themselves are the embodiment of the ideal of the culture of romanticism.
DECEMBER POETS
ü F.N. Glinka - did not drink tea, covered himself with his overcoat to ransom the serfs.
Idea of freedom: did not take part in the uprising on Senate Square, but was still sent to prison.
ü V.F. Raevsky - Decembrist without December
ü P.A.Katenin
ü V.K. Kuchelbecker – a supporter of class, high style
ü A.A. Bestuzhin (Marlinsky) - gave the last notebook to Lermontov
ü A.I. Odoevsky
What the classicists and Decembrists have in common:
1 didacticism
2 civil pathos (for the Decembrists, the main thing in verse is the idea - the poems often turned out awkward)
3 attraction to high genres: ode, tragedy, heroic poem
4 believed that personal interests must be subordinated to public interests.
Class-B special features:
1 fought to strengthen the state
2 believed that civil service to the Fatherland is the duty of every citizen
What is special about the Decembrists:
1 sought to understand the essence of the state
2 Service to the Fatherland is a personal need
Features of poetry: tst. Theme: the theme of freedom, the theme of the fate of the Russian people. They often turned to wandering subjects and images. TV permeates not only general motifs, but also general images. There are two styles in the poetry of the Decembrists: 1) - ancient - the authors turned to the history of Rome, to the tyrant-fighting plot, in the images of Caesar, Bruto, Catulus; 2) - ancient Russian style - appeal to the history of Russia, appeal to the period of unrest of the 17th century (image B Godunov), etc.
KUCHELBECKER
A friend of Pushkin and Griboyedov, an interlocutor of Goethe, who was inspired by an interest in the then young Russian poetry, a passionate literary critic (but, according to Pushkin, “a smart man with a pen in his hands”), a philologist-erudite, a brilliant lecturer - a promoter of freedom and Russian literature in Paris 192, the legendary eccentric poet, a laughing stock for literary enemies and even friends, a possible prototype of Pushkin's Lensky... 193 Kuchelbecker's successes and failures are instructive; his creative path reflected the confrontation between the diverse tendencies of Russian lyricism at a turning point for it 194.
Kuchelbecker, like other Decembrists, stood firmly on educational positions and at the same time internalized the revolutionary meaning of enlightenment. The Decembrists understood the improvement of man and society as alteration, restructuring, transformation. Their revolutionary spirit was based on the idea of the expediency of interfering in the lives of bearers of “truth.” Philosophical skepticism affected them very little. Therefore, the most characteristic type of Decembrist is the type of political enthusiast 195.
Enthusiasm is the basis of Kuchelbecker’s personal mental makeup, the basis of his life behavior, political beliefs, and aesthetic theories.
While still at the Lyceum, Kuchelbecker made his choice between the types of Russian poetic speech that had taken shape by that time (the pathos of the 18th century, the lyricism and “poetry” of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, the “oral” ease and irony of D. Davydov). Long before his Decembrist views took shape, Kuchelbecker became a connoisseur of pathetic art. For him, the pitch of tone is always adequate to the significance of the content and determines the pathos that is in tune with his educational enthusiasm.
In different years, in different circumstances of his tragic fate, Kuchelbecker returns to the same problems. In 1824, his “excessive” passion for Byron seemed unjustified, since “he is a painter of moral horrors, devastated souls and crushed hearts; painter of mental hell" 196. Kuchelbecker never liked romantic irony. He remarked in 1834: “I’m tired, by the way, of the convulsive irony with which they have been writing about everything for some time now” 197 . In his own works, attempts at irony are mostly unsuccessful (in Shakespeare's Spirits, certain places in Izhorsky, etc.).
Enlightenment optimism took straightforward forms in Kuchelbecker. Distressed by the fact that his critical review of Byron coincided with the news of the poet’s death (1824), in the ode “The Death of Byron” he decided to atone for his awkwardness and even in his own way interpret the poet, whose worldly sorrow was not to his liking:
Bard, painter of brave souls,
Thundering, joyful, imperishable...
He needed a “joyful” Byron.
In all this, Kuchelbecker is the flesh and blood of literary Decembrism.
The revolutionary-enlightenment worldview determined the direction in poetry created by the Decembrists. This revolutionary romanticism, imbued with the high pathos of serving the fatherland, was the ground on which Decembrist romanticism came closer to classicism.
Decembrist poetry gravitated more towards the heritage of classicism than D. Davydov, even Batyushkov, not to mention Zhukovsky. The combination of the principles of classicism and romanticism in Decembrist poetry is associated with the desire to embody the high heroic ideal of man.
The “Legislation” of the Union of Welfare said: “The description of an object or the presentation of a feeling that does not excite but weakens high thoughts, no matter how charming it may be, is always unworthy of the gift of poetry.” Kuchelbecker, A. Bestuzhev, Ryleev used this criterion to evaluate the work of their contemporaries. Admiring Pushkin's gift, they, however, were not delighted with his subject matter. “Why would you shoot a butterfly with a cannon?”, “Why cut out images from an apple seed if you have a Praxiteles chisel?” 198 Kuchelbecker, dissatisfied with “Mr. Onegin,” as he called him, lamented: “Is this really poetry?..”
This understanding of “sublimity” manifested both romantic concepts of the sublime, the dream, and echoes of the aesthetics of classicism.
It was Kuchelbecker, more than anyone else, who reflected the main literary collision of the era: classicism - romanticism. A. Bestuzhev, who then wrote mainly in prose, is the author of ultra-romantic stories. Ryleev's main research was in the field of romantic lyric-epic genres (Dumas, poems Voinarovsky, Paley, etc.) 199 .
Orienting poetry toward an educational understanding of spiritual values and “ideas,” the Decembrists could not accept the motivation for heroism proposed by D. Davydov—his “physiologism.” They also took a skeptical position in relation to the elegiac school, towards Batyushkov and Zhukovsky.
Starting from his lyceum years, Kuchelbecker more and more definitely and persistently distanced himself from the so-called “light” poetry. Yu. N. Tynyanov explains his constant conflicts with his comrades, including his closest friends - Pushkin and Delvig, by the difference in literary views. There was an opinion among lyceum students that Küchelbecker ranks higher than Delvig as a poet and should take place directly after Pushkin 200 . But still, his poems are a constant target for very evil ridicule. The point was not so much in the artistic level of the poems, but in their direction.
Of the ancient lyricists, Kuchelbecker appreciates the solemn Pindar (left aside by Batyushkov) most of all. In German literature, unlike the Zhukovsky school, he is attracted not by sentimental and pre-romantic movements, but by poems of German classicism of the 18th century and Goethe. In Russian poetry, he places Derzhavin and Gnedich above everyone else, and not the rulers of thought Batyushkov and D. Davydov.
Things were more complicated with Zhukovsky. Kuchelbecker was initially impressed by the moral height of his lyrics, which did not fit into the concept of “lightness” and “pettiness.” Until the early 1820s, he admired Zhukovsky, and Zhukovsky even later called himself his “spiritual father” 201.
Among Kuchelbecker's poems, written before the turning point in his work in 1821, there are many imitations of Zhukovsky. These are “Autumn”, “Elegy”, “Winter”, “To Lisa”, “Ghost”, “To My Genius”, “Inspiration”, “To Brother”, “Nice”, etc.
The young poet perceives in Zhukovsky something more than motives of elegiac despondency. For all his sympathies for classical poetry, he is clearly passionate about new prospects for depicting mental life. Expanding the boundaries of the inner world in lyrics gave him, like the young Pushkin, the opportunity to depict civil emotions as personal emotional experiences.
In the poem “To Friends, on the Rhine” (1821), the poet calls freedom “the love of the soul.” IN soul poet - thoughts about the fatherland. Readiness for civil self-sacrifice is an internal state. The desire to recreate it leads to Zhukovsky’s lyrical intonations:
The light boat cherishes me, -
The firmament of heaven is clear;
Coolness blows from the bright waters, -
Silence pours into the soul!
. . . . . . . . . . . .
This cup is for you, burdened
With pure and golden moisture,
I drink to our sacred union,
I drink to my native Russian land!
Thus, with all the “archaistic” sympathies, in his lyrical work Kuchelbecker initially moves in the direction of poetry of a new type. Hence his sometimes closeness with Pushkin:
O city of immortality, muses and battle!
Father of nations, eternal Rome!
I extend my hands to you,
We are tormented by fiery desire.
(“Farewell”) “We are waiting with languor hope || Minutes of holy freedom...” (“To Chaadaev” by Pushkin). Here, an even more extreme case is not the lyrical style of Zhukovsky, but the style of “erotic” poetry applied for the purposes of civil poetry 202.
Having soon gained fame as a persecutor of elegy and a supporter of ode, Kuchelbecker at the turn of the 1810-1820s made bold experiments with elegy (some of them before Pushkin and differently than Pushkin). While preserving the genre, he modified not only its themes, but also its style. And this gave interesting results.
Kuchelbecker's experiments are important in that he was one of the first to use the possibilities of thematic and stylistic diversity inherent in the elegy genre. Zhukovsky’s intonation and lexical structure is (which is very important) the basis on which additional tones and colors are distributed.
The innovation was the introduction of pathos. Kuchelbecker gives tension and certainty to emotions. His joy tends toward jubilation, and despondency toward tragedy.
So! easily clouded moment
The gloomy current of my blood,
But for quick oblivion
Don't deprive me of your love...
Our bonds are unbreakable!
At the fatal sacred hour -
Sorrow and Joy, Friendship, Muses
Souls combined in us!
(“K***”, 1817-1818)
As we can see, Kuchelbecker’s elegiac message is very “energetic”, imbued with a pathosity unusual for this genre tradition. On the other hand, the melancholic theme of withering is given a gloomy and mournful flavor in the elegy “Winter” (1816 or 1817):
My heart began to ache, and in the midst of painful thoughts I forgot:
A man sleeps on coffins and sees heavy dreams; -
He sleeps - and only occasionally does grief and melancholy arrive
Wake up your soul!
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Everywhere there is cold and shine. - The trees are exposed and covered
Ice crust. I'm coming; crunches under my feet
Light, lifeless snow, a path running through the snowdrifts
Into the white distance!
The young Kuchelbecker’s poems about dreams and fame (motives very common at that time) are distinguished by their emotional and stylistic boldness:
In vain, going down to the head,
Coming to your bed,
She has you in bold visions,
In dreams both menacing and cheerful
She led to her temple!
(“To Himself”, 1818)
A contemporary critic, P. A. Pletnev, appreciated Kuchelbecker’s “brave techniques in depicting strong feelings, the news of pictures created by a living imagination” 203. Kuchelbecker early became in opposition to “smooth”, harmonic verse; “smoothness” from his point of view is a disadvantage, not an advantage. Without accepting stylistic harmony, the young Protestant crosses stylistically heterogeneous layers of language. At first he does it timidly, then more boldly:
Ah, dear endless
For the soul, still young,
For my carefree dreams
I imagined the earthly path!
But the loud laughter will fall silent,
My wine will dry up; -
So feast, descendants,
Everything is doomed to the grave!
Maybe my skull is white
Kicks with an angry foot
An old man, gray in sorrow,
Now my drinking companion!
("Song of Decay", late 1810 - early 1820s)
Kuchelbecker reveals an affinity for poetic tropes, personifications and metaphors, uncharacteristic of the “school of harmonic precision” (Pushkin’s expression). Karamzinists and Zhukovsky shunned tropes 204. For them, it was important, in particular, that the crossing of direct and figurative meanings complicated the possibilities of harmonic phrases.
In Kuchelbecker’s poem “Night” (1818-1820), both the image of the night itself and its individual details are metaphorical:
Children of the day's suffering,
Dreams surrounded me, ghosts nodded their heads
The dead, the vain host...
It is interesting that Kuchelbecker gives a rather unexpected expression to the image taken from Zhukovsky. In Zhukovsky’s ballad “The Knight of Togenburg” the monastery “ glowed between the dark linden trees." Kuchelbecker “over the dormant church blushes|| In the darkness there is a fiery cross."
Kuchelbecker’s most fruitful searches were in the field of “civil” elegy. An example is his “Nice” (1821). “Nice” was not published at the time for censorship reasons and, apparently, remained unknown to Pushkin at that time. Kuchelbecker fell into political disgrace (the authorities were dissatisfied with his lectures on Russian literature given in Paris), moved from place to place and, obviously, could not send “Nice” to a friend who was in southern exile. In 1829, when Kuchelbecker was serving solitary confinement in the fortress, Nice was published anonymously and with censored notes. Not all stanzas of this poem are equal. However, the poet succeeded in the main thing: human consciousness is revealed here not as the world of the “reason” alone, but as the world of the “soul”, where the universal becomes one’s own, where civil grief is one of the strongest internal experiences:
The edge, the love of nature itself,
The birthplace of luxurious Muses,
The area of war and freedom,
Slave and heart bonds!
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Here I saw a promise
Bright, carefree days;
But even here suffering does not sleep,
The muses are scared by the sound of chains!
An intimate lyrical tone and at the same time social pathos are characteristic of this elegy, where Italy is depicted not only as a “region” of spiritual dreams, experiences of love and beauty, but also a “region” of the heroic struggle for freedom.
Kuchelbecker combines in “Nice” the poetic sweetness of Zhukovsky’s style:
Your wondrous moon
I was led by sea... -
with very free, original images:
Thunder will howl; glow sparkles
They will blind the sad gaze;
Hateful Tudes 205
They will fall from the terrible mountains:
Death from a thousand guns will strike,
A thousand bayonets will sparkle;
Without being born, spring will fade,
Liberty, without being born, will die!..
The most canonical, it would seem, expression of Russian elegy (“sad gaze”) flared up with a new meaning.
But the didactic ideas of classicism turned out to be too strong for Kuchelbecker. The path he was about to take did not exclude, as we have seen, the civic pathos of the content, but was poorly reconciled with didactics.
Kuchelbecker turned sharply to the side. 1821 is a milestone in his lyrics. From elegy he returns to ode. On his poetic banner he writes the name of the archaic poet Shikhmatov, cruelly ridiculed by the Karamzinists - pompous and extremely rhetorical. After poems about the “hated Tudes”, about the withering of freedom and spring, about a beautiful country where “the muses are frightened by the sound of chains,” Kuchelbecker, as they said in the old days, “sang”:
Centuries march towards a glorious goal -
I see them, they are coming!
("Greek Song") -
Küchelbecker's elegy was distinguished by its stylistic diversity, even including odic vocabulary (“will fall”, “glow of splendor”, “will burst out”, etc.). New elegy managed to create. New ode it turned out to be impossible to create: straightforward didacticism tightly closed it.
Friends! The sons of Hellas are waiting for us!
Who will give us Wings? let's fly!
Hide yourself mountains, rivers, cities -
They are waiting for us - come to them quickly!
Hear, fate, my prayers -
Send it to me too, send me the minute of the first battle!
("Greek Song")
It is difficult to overcome the impression that these good poems are still poorer than those written shortly before them on the same topic of the Greek uprising:
Yes, I will fall for freedom,
For the love of my soul,
Sacrifice to the glorious people,
The pride of crying friends!
("To friends, on the Rhine")
Many poets of Pushkin’s time reacted with sharp disapproval to Kuchelbecker’s archaistic excesses: “Only in his head could the idea of singing… Greece, where everything breathes mythology and heroism, come into his head, with Slavic Russian verses taken entirely from Jeremiah” 20. This review by Pushkin emphasizes the inevitable predetermination of the entire structure of the ode. “Kuchelbecker often calls beautiful and lofty what should be called bombast...,” Yazykov noted. “The beauties of Shikhmatov, which Küchelbecker does not prove, are all borrowed either from the Holy Scriptures, or from Lomonosov and Derzhavin” 207.
Yazykov understands the reason for the artistic lack of independence of the “archaists”: this is constraint by the genre, which prevents change angle of view. “The beauties of Shikhmatov,” according to Yazykov, “are all in words and, consequently, do not give Shikhmatov the right to be called original.”
Kuchelbecker, meanwhile, now appreciates in others and develops in himself originality, which consists precisely “in words.” What disgusts him most of all is what he had previously overcome - the “sweet” harmony of phrases. He is for roughness, irregularities of style, which carry within themselves the elements of contradictions and anxiety.
For example, not at all out of comic awkwardness, but in order to demonstratively trample upon the criteria of “good taste” and “moderation” that he despises, Kuchelbecker writes in a message to Griboyedov:
Singer, you were given by the hand of fate
Living soul, flame of feeling,
Quiet fun and bright love,
Holy sacraments of high art
And the briskly galloping blood 208.
Pushkin repeatedly ridiculed this line - it became the same target for satirical arrows as the first, still inept, lyceum poems “Küchli” 209.
The “poeticizing” principle and lyricism developed by Batyushkov and Zhukovsky are increasingly rejected by Kuchelbecker: “Our poems are not burdened with thoughts, feelings, or pictures; meanwhile they contain some kind of inexplicable charm, incomprehensible neither to readers nor to writers, but every non-Slavophile, every person admires them with taste” (“Land of the Headless”) 210. Kuchelbecker understood that the denial of the right of lyrics to “inexplicable charm” and the return to poetic archaism separates him as a poet from Pushkin 211.
Despite individual innovations, Kuchelbecker’s ode as a whole recreated the classical canon. Returning to the ode, Kuchelbecker returned to the corresponding artistic concept of man. He simultaneously writes the odic “Prophecy” and the friendly letter “To Pushkin.” In the first, the poet’s civic image is expressed in an extremely pathetic, “biblical” way:
The message “To Pushkin” (about “Prisoner of the Caucasus”) is written in an intimate manner, sometimes even sentimental:
Alas! like him, I was an exile,
Destroyed from their native country,
And early, joyless wanderer,
He had to eat someone else's bread.
It is significant that in the lyrical plot of this message both Pushkin’s exile and Kuchelbecker’s wanderings appear, but without any civic significance. Biographical details are of a “private” nature. Therefore, the parallel drawn by the poet between his own fate and the fate of Pushkin’s captive is not convincing; the coincidences seem random. This was immediately noticed by Pushkin: “Kuchelbecker writes to me in tetrameter verse that he was in Germany, in Paris, in the Caucasus and that he fell from a horse. All this is by the way about the Caucasian captive" 212,
The elegies of the “purchasing” cycle 213 are almost devoid of citizenship. They also lack the stylistic diversity previously characteristic of Küchelbecker’s elegies. They are intimate, which was unusual for Kuchelbecker’s previously elegiac experiments. The “purchasing” cycle, perfect in its way, is quite traditional. With professional skill, Kuchelbecker writes “no worse” than Zhukovsky in harmonic mode:
A corner sacred to the heart!
Everything there breathes with fragrance,
There's a leaf plucked from a rose
The wind swirls with its breath.
(“Zakupskaya Chapel”)
At the same time, in 1822-1825, Kuchelbecker created a number of civil poems of the odic type (“The Fate of the Poets”, “To Vyazemsky”, “The Prayer of a Warrior”, “To God”, “The Death of Byron”, etc.). The genre shackled Kuchelbecker. Despite all efforts to bring a fresh spirit, the style of his ode remained canonical. Kuchelbecker sharply attacks elegy, considering its possibilities extremely limited, in particular, he ridicules the boring “ roses - frost"; but in his own odes and poems another rhyme is now continuously repeated - “ strings - peruns»...
The most vulnerable in the “new” ode was the image of the poet, largely predetermined by the genre. The characterization of the poet’s image in Kuchelbecker’s ode did not go beyond the conventional odic “frenzy”: 214
Then (but fear seized me!
I turn pale, I tremble, I sob;
Suppressed by grief, groaning,
I'm scared, I'm leaving the lyre!..).
("The Death of Byron")
Without sparing Kuchelbecker, Pushkin parodied him in “Ode to His Excellency Count Khvostov” (1825) and then, in the 4th chapter of “Eugene Onegin,” he pointed out the futility of the archaic genre:
Write odes, gentlemen,
As they were written in powerful years,
As was the custom of old...
However, criticizing traditional elegy, Kuchelbecker was partly right. The pathetic style that Kuchelbecker strove for is inorganic for an elegy. Pathos is the inalienable and eternal right of poetry. It is not something transitory and could not, should not have disappeared along with classicism. In European poetry, in other forms, it existed long before classicism. But it is natural that the possibilities of a pathetic style for Russian lyric poetry were primarily determined by the immediate tradition in its own literature of the 18th century. Kuchelbecker’s role was that he gave a classic “graft” to the new Russian lyrics.
There was another reason why Decembrist civic poetry then refused to focus on elegy. The Russian ode of the 18th century was based on an educational-optimistic worldview and, by its very nature, could not be either pessimistic or essentially tragic. Elegiac melancholy initially contains the possibility of the most extreme tragedy (let us recall Baratynsky’s late elegies).
The Decembrist Kuchelbecker naturally developed a literary program where the demands of optimistic citizenship and pathos are combined together.
In his sensational article of 1824 “On the direction of our poetry, especially lyric poetry, in the last decade,” 215 Kuchelbecker first of all accuses the elegiac direction of monotony. “Having read any 216 elegy by Zhukovsky, Pushkin or Baratynsky, you know everything.” This judgment is, in principle, extremely unfair, but let us not forget that Kuchelbecker does not accept the elegiac theme of disappointment, which is hostile to his enthusiastic temperament. He accuses the elegiac poets: “We have long since lost feelings; the feeling of despondency swallowed up all others.” For the Decembrist critic, what is more important is what unites the elegiac “school” as a whole, and not what distinguishes its individual representatives from each other.
Kuchelbecker now defends the purity of the civil theme, its complete detachment from the personal element; such a “pure culture” of citizenship, it seemed to him, benefits from intensity. Kuchelbecker - for intensity. “In elegy, modern and ancient, the poem speaks about itself, about its sorrows and pleasures.” “In the ode, the poet is disinterested... he rejoices over the greatness of his native land, places Peruns in his adversaries, blesses the righteous, curses the monster.”
“Elegy never takes wings, never rejoices.” “Strength, freedom, inspiration are the three necessary conditions of all poetry.”
Kuchelbecker's article was accepted by contemporaries as one of the most serious phenomena in literary criticism of that time. It has been established that in Pushkin’s literary critical statements (even from the 1830s) there are dozens of reminiscences from it. Pushkin did not accept the positive program of Article 217, but was greatly impressed by its polemical part. And Baratynsky wrote to Kuchelbecker: “Your opinions seem undeniably fair to me” 218. One might think that the article had a certain impact on Baratynsky’s creative evolution. In 1825-1826 there came a crisis in his lyrics, then a “new era”, a break with the genre of love elegy. At the same time, Baratynsky turned out to have a completely different position on educational optimism than Kuchelbecker.
Kuchelbecker's critical performance greatly contributed to overcoming the genre limitations of traditional elegy (which, as we have seen, was possible). Traditional elegy is gradually becoming the lot of epigones. The blow dealt by Küchelbecker released the possibilities of renewal inherent in the elegy. This was another important result of the article, unexpected, probably, for its author.
“Ryleev created a new poetry that corresponds to the forward movement of Decembrism.” His poetry is meditative and odic.
Ryleev’s creative heritage easily falls into three groups of works:
a) various lyric poems, small forms;
b) lyric-epic “Dumas” and
c) large forms - the poem “Voinarovsky” (plans for poems about Nalivaika, tragedy about Khmelnitsky, etc.).
We include the poems in the first group: “To the temporary worker”, “To Kosovsky”, “A.P. Ermolov”, “Civil Courage”, “Citizen”, “On the Death of Byron”, “Stanzas” (A. Bestuzhev), “Vera Nikolaevna Stolypina”, “Bestuzhev” (i.e. the same Alexander Bestuzhev). In satire The surrounding reality and the “Arakcheevsky” regime are branded “temporary”. The ode “Civil Courage” glorifies in a generalized form one of the fundamental qualities of true valor, service to the fatherland, an ideal that must be followed; here is a program of action for an entire generation. Here are domestic examples of civil courage: Dolgoruky, Panin, who dared to speak the truth under Peter I and Catherine II, and the now living Mordvinov, a member of the State Council, distinguished by the justice and inflexibility of his positions. Of the world's examples, both Catanas and Cicero come to mind. The hero of 1812 A.P. also serves as an example. Ermolov, to whom a special message is addressed. This message is from a whole generation, from all the Decembrists: they knew about Ermolov’s oppositional sentiments and that he was not welcome at court; The Decembrists even counted on Ermolov’s help in the event of an uprising. Among the closest examples of valor of pan-European significance, Byron was chosen, to whose death in Greece among the rebellious people Ryleev dedicated a special poem. Ryleev’s most famous poem “Citizen,” written in the year of the uprising. Here is a satire on society, a “windy tribe” of “reborn Slavs”, here is a call for “civic courage” (the very title of the poem), here are examples of valor (Brutus, Riego). But here there is also an autobiographical theme, developed in the mentioned messages, the theme of a poet-citizen who has renounced the pleasures and pleasures of life and devoted himself entirely to serving his high duty. The poem “Citizen” begins with a direct statement of a special task for himself in life: “Will I disgrace a citizen of the rank at a fateful time?” the poet does not want to “drag out his life in shameful idleness”, waste his life “in the arms of voluptuousness”, he is different - he has comprehended the “destiny of the century”, he wants to fight “for the oppressed freedom of man.”
2. “Song about... merchant Kalashnikov.” Problems, character system, stylistic originality.
Lermontov's poem does not reflect these facts, as well as information about the abductions of beautiful wives of noble people, which Ivan the Terrible encouraged. Historical Grozny confiscated the property of those executed, and did not care about the well-being of their families, as happens in “Song...”. The 16th century, as depicted by Lermontov, is a high heroic past: there is not a single clearly defined negative character in the poem, the horrors of the oprichnina remain “behind the scenes.” At the same time, Kiribeevich’s permissiveness, the horror that gripped Alena Dmitrievna at his words about his origins from the “glorious family from Malyutin”, the tsar’s violation of his oath to pardon the winner are true. And the main conflict of the poem - the conflict between the daring, noble, independent Kalashnikov and the pitch-black, “crafty slave” of Tsar Kiribeevich - of course, can be read in the context of “fierce times.” The problematics of the poem do not boil down to the contrast between the century of extraordinary people and dull modernity. At the center of the “Song” is the question of honor and dishonor, the key issue of Lermontov’s works.
“Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” (1837) marks the beginning of a new stage in the poet’s creative development (in the same year “Borodino” and “Death of the Poet” were written). Never before had Lermontov come so close to folk poetry. This closeness is manifested not simply in certain formal features (in language, verse), but above all in the reproduction of national consciousness. The idea of the poem was connected with the idea reflected in Borodino: admiration for the heroic deeds and personalities of past eras and bitterness at the thought of the insignificance of the current generation.
“Song...” expresses poetic reflections not so much about the era of Ivan the Terrible, but about our own modernity, about the rights of the human person. In particular, there is an assumption that the poem reflected the author’s thoughts about the fate and causes of Pushkin’s death. Belinsky saw the meaning of the poem in the fact that “... the poet was transported from the present world of unsatisfactory Russian life into its historical past...
Two large, strong characters created by Lermontov in this poem are directly opposed to each other. Their main properties were already outlined in Lermontov's lyrics and his early poems. The Tsar's oprichnik Kiribeevich is a continuation of the romantic hero-individualist, who does not recognize any moral prohibitions for himself and is ready to sacrifice the honor and dignity of other people to his passions. The merchant Kalashnikov expresses the people's beginnings; he continues the line of Lermontov's avenger heroes. Kalashnikov is dear to the poet not only as a fighter against untruth and tyranny. No less valuable is his moral fortitude and inner conviction that he is right. Associated with it is the idea of strong moral principles and folk tradition. He wins a moral victory over his opponent.
Until recently, Kiribeevich, who reveals the ability for strong love and, in the name of passionate feelings, violates generally accepted norms, could find himself at the center of the poem as a high romantic hero. Now Lermontov's concept is changing noticeably. The Byronic individualist hero is debunked. The image of Kiribeevich has its own poetic charm, he is not even without remorse, but in Lermontov he is directly opposed to Kalashnikov as the bearer of the people's consciousness and is undoubtedly inferior to him in moral terms. At the end of the poem it is said that the people worshiped the grave of Kalashnikov, but not Kiribeevich, although he also died.
Ivan the Terrible occupies an important place in the system of images of the poem. It is given in the spirit of popular ideas, recorded in many folklore works, in which the combination of the traits of justice and at the same time despotism was noted in the character of the king. This is how Lermontov’s most important ideological and aesthetic principle is manifested: he looks at his heroes through the eyes of the people, subjects them to control and judgment from the standpoint of popular ideas about duty, honor and morality. Naturally, in such a poem Lermontov widely used the system of visual means inherent in folk poetry.
But in “Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” there is no direct, literal borrowing from any specific folklore texts. Lermontov creatively uses folk poetry, freely melting it in accordance with his plan. The world of oral folk art was organically included in the artistic world of Lermontov. “The Song...” was published anonymously (the exiled poet could not sign it with his last name). Belinsky, in his first review of the poem, immediately noted the emergence of a new talent in Russian poetry: “We don’t know the author of this song, but we are not afraid to fall into the category of false predictors who say that our literature is acquiring a strong and original talent.”
“The song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, the young guardsman and the daring merchant Kalashnikov” was written in a special genre. Lermontov sought to bring the poem closer to epic folklore tales. The guslars, who entertain the “good nobleman and his white-faced noblewoman” with the “Song,” play a vital role in the structure of the poem. The reader does not hear the author’s voice; in front of him is a work of oral folk art. Consequently, the moral positions from which the characters in “The Song...” are assessed are not the author’s personally, but are generally popular. This greatly enhances the triumph of “mother truth” in the legend, for the act of the unknown merchant Kalashnikov, who defended his personal honor, became a fact of people’s history.
EXAMINATION TICKET No. 8
History of Russian literature of the 19th century. Part 1. 1795-1830 Skibin Sergey Mikhailovich
Poetry by K.F. Ryleeva
Poetry by K.F. Ryleeva
One of the brightest Decembrist poets of the younger generation was Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev. His creative life did not last long - from his first student experiences in 1817–1819. until the last poem (beginning 1826), written in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
Wide fame came to Ryleev after the publication of the ode-satire “To a Temporary Worker” (1820), which was written in a completely traditional spirit, but was distinguished by its bold content. Initially, in Ryleev’s poetry, poems of different genres and styles coexist in parallel - odes and elegies. The “rules” of the then literature weigh heavily on Ryleev. Civil and personal themes do not yet mix, although the ode, for example, takes on a new structure. Its theme is not the glorification of the monarch, not military valor, as was the case in 18th-century poetry, but ordinary civil service.
The peculiarity of Ryleev’s lyrics lies in the fact that he not only inherits the traditions of civil poetry of the last century, but also assimilates the achievements of the new, romantic poetry of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, in particular the poetic style of Zhukovsky, using the same stable verse formulas.
Gradually, however, the civil and intimate streams in the poet’s lyrics begin to intersect: elegies and messages include civic motives, and ode and satire are imbued with personal sentiments. Genres and styles begin to mix. In other words, in the civil, or social, current of Russian romanticism, the same processes occur as in the psychological current. The hero of elegies and epistles (genres that were traditionally devoted to the description of intimate experiences) is enriched with the traits of a public person (“V.N. Stolypina”, “On the Death of Beiron”). Civil passions receive the dignity of living personal emotions. This is how genre barriers collapse, and genre thinking suffers significant damage. This tendency is characteristic of the entire civil branch of Russian romanticism.
Typical, for example, is Ryleev’s poem “Will I be at the fatal time...”. On the one hand, it has obvious features of ode and satire - high vocabulary (“fatal time”, “citizen san”), iconic references to the names of heroes of ancient and modern times (Brutus, Riego), contemptuous and accusatory expressions (“pampered tribe”) , oratorical, declamatory intonation, designed for oral pronunciation, for public speech addressed to the audience; on the other hand, an elegiac reflection imbued with sadness about the fact that the younger generation is not entering the civilian field.
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Poetry by K.F. Ryleeva
One of the brightest Decembrist poets of the younger generation was Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev. His creative life did not last long - from his first student experiences in 1817-1819. until the last poem (beginning 1826), written in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
Wide fame came to Ryleev after the publication of the ode-satire “To the Temporary Worker” (1820), which was written in a completely traditional spirit, but was distinguished by its bold content. Initially, in Ryleev’s poetry, poems of different genres and styles coexist in parallel - odes and elegies. The “rules” of the then literature weigh heavily on Ryleev. Civil and personal themes do not yet mix, although the ode, for example, takes on a new structure. Its theme is not the glorification of the monarch, not military valor, as was the case in 18th-century poetry, but ordinary civil service.
The peculiarity of Ryleev’s lyrics lies in the fact that he not only inherits the traditions of civil poetry of the last century, but also assimilates the achievements of the new, romantic poetry of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, in particular the poetic style of Zhukovsky, using the same stable verse formulas.
Gradually, however, the civil and intimate streams in the poet’s lyrics begin to intersect: elegies and messages include civic motives, and ode and satire are imbued with personal sentiments. Genres and styles begin to mix. In other words, in the civil, or social, current of Russian romanticism, the same processes occur as in the psychological current. The hero of elegies and messages (genres that were traditionally devoted to the description of intimate experiences) is enriched with the features of a public person (“V.N. Stolypina”, “On the Death of Beiron”). Civil passions receive the dignity of living personal emotions. This is how genre barriers collapse, and genre thinking suffers significant damage. This tendency is characteristic of the entire civil branch of Russian romanticism.
Typical, for example, is Ryleev’s poem “Will I be at the fatal time...”. On the one hand, it has obvious features of ode and satire - high vocabulary (“fatal time”, “citizen san”), iconic references to the names of heroes of ancient and modern times (Brutus, Riego), contemptuous and accusatory expressions (“pampered tribe”) , oratorical, declamatory intonation, designed for oral pronunciation, for public speech addressed to the audience; on the other hand, an elegiac reflection imbued with sadness about the fact that the younger generation is not entering the civilian field.