Speech therapy and other related sciences.
Etiology of speech disorders.
Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech.
Ontogenesis of speech development.
Classifications of speech disorders.
Brief characteristics of speech disorders.
1. Speech therapy. Subject, tasks, principles, methods of speech therapy. The connection between speech therapy and other related sciences.
Speech therapy- the science of speech education. Translated from Greek it means LOGOS - speech, PAIDEO - education.
Speech therapy is a branch of special pedagogy that deals with pathological speech disorders. Physiological speech deficiencies are not included in the subject of speech therapy.
Speech therapy has its own subject, objectives, principles and methods for studying and training people with speech disorders.
Speech therapy is the science of speech development disorders, their overcoming and prevention through special correctional training and education.
The subject of speech therapy is the study of the patterns of training and education of persons with speech disorders, as well as accompanying deviations in their mental development.
Speech therapy is traditionally divided into preschool, school and adult speech therapy.
Speech therapy exists at the intersection of many sciences - pedagogy, psychology, medicine.
Scientists in these areas dealt with the problems of speech disorders: L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyev, A.A. Leontyev, A.N. Gvozdev, A.R. Luria, R.E. Levina, S.S. Lyapidevsky, M.E. Khvattsev, F.A. RAU, O.V. Pravdina, B.M. Grinshpun, E.M. Mastyukova, Nikashina, L.F. Spirova, G.A. Kashe, L.S. Volkova, T.B. Filicheva, G.V. Chirkina, A.V. Yastrebova, R.I. Lalaeva, T.G. Wiesel et al.
Tasks of speech therapy.
Theoretical.
Studying the patterns of special training and education of persons with disabilities.
Identification of the prevalence and symptoms of speech disorders.
Study of the structure of a speech defect and its influence on the mental development of a child.
Development of pedagogical diagnostic methods.
Development of scientifically based methods of correctional training, taking into account the age and structure of the defect, as well as methods for preventing secondary speech pathology.
The practical aspect of speech therapy is to identify, prevent and eliminate speech disorders.
Applied problems.
Early and timely identification of children with RP.
The earlier a speech defect is identified, the more effective the speech therapy work is. Why?
Children's developing brains have great compensatory capabilities. In a child, to a much greater extent than in adults, intact and developing areas of the cerebral cortex can take on the functions of the affected areas. The possibilities for compensation and development of speech activity largely depend on the start time of targeted speech therapy classes.
It is known that a powerful factor accelerating the maturation of the nervous system is its functioning.
Speech therapy classes started early include various brain systems into active activity and, thereby, accelerate their maturation and contribute to the most complete compensation of certain speech disorders (Anokhin, “Biology and neurophysiology of the conditioned reflex,” M., Medicine, 1968) .
Speech therapy classes started during the period of the most intensive development of the brain, in the so-called sensitive (favorable, sensitive) period, are the most effective. The fastest rate of brain development occurs in the first three years of a child's life.
According to the figurative expression of a number of authors, by the age of three a human being has already completed half of its mental development. By age three, the human brain reaches half its final weight. “Three years is the first age crisis, the child’s first statement about his personality!”
For the first time, the child speaks about himself in the first person - “I”.
And therefore, speech therapy classes started between 3 and 4 years of age (and even earlier) are the most favorable.
Early correctional work allows you to correct some characterological features (shyness, tightness, uncertainty, etc.).
It is known that every secondary disorder is easier to prevent than to correct the existing pathology. Therefore, the speech therapist is obliged to know and take into account the causes of these disorders and prevent their occurrence during the propaedeutic (preparatory) period.
It has been proven that OHP and FFN lead to impairments in written speech and it is advisable to eliminate these deficiencies in preschool age, before the child enters school.
2. A speech defect is never considered on its own, but rather it is considered in conjunction with the child’s personal characteristics, his age, and environment. And, when developing the content of speech therapy classes, the speech therapist is obliged to take into account the characteristics of the child’s HMF (memory, attention, perception, thinking), character, and behavior. For example, when working with a child who stutters, it is necessary to take into account such character traits as isolation, touchiness, irritability
Applied problems of speech therapy are solved by developing and implementing special correctional programs for children with different structures and severity of speech defects, by developing methodological systems for speech therapy classes, didactic aids, and recommendations for parents.
Overcoming and preventing speech disorders contribute to the development of the child’s creative abilities and his full development in general.
Speech therapy methods.
Study methods.
Collection and analysis of anamnestic data,
observations,
experiment (in natural conditions and laboratory conditions).
Correction methods.
Medical (surgical, medication, physiotherapy, prosthetics),
pedagogical,
psychological.
Pedagogical.
Speech therapy intervention is carried out using various methods, among which they are conventionally distinguished: visual, verbal and practical.
1. Visual – aimed at enriching the content of speech.
Verbal - aimed at teaching retelling, conversation, retelling without visual support.
Practical - used in the formation of speech skills through the widespread use of special skills. exercises, games, performances.
Highlight:
productive methods (used in retelling, in constructing coherent independent statements, various types of stories);
reproductive methods. They are used in the formation of sound pronunciation and sound-syllable structure. They are used in conditions where activities are interesting for the child.
Principles of speech therapy.
General didactic and special.
At research RN and analysis use the following principles:
Development - the process of occurrence of a defect is studied.
Systematic approach - speech activity is considered as a system: expressive and impressive speech.
The relationship between RN and other aspects of mental development (MPD).
These principles constitute the main method of speech therapy science, developed by R.E. Levina, representing a comprehensive approach that takes into account the characteristics of the sensory, motor and emotional-volitional spheres.
Corrective action is carried out using teaching and educational methods and is based on general didactic and special principles.
Forms of influence in preschool speech therapy – education, training and correction.
Other forms - adaptation, compensation, rehabilitation - of psychological influence in working with adolescents and adults.
Principles of training.
Ontogenetic,
Leading activity of age.
Individual approach.
Conscious acquisition of language skills.
Taking into account the current development zone.
Relationships between sensory, mental and speech development.
Communicative-activity approach to speech development (i.e. aimed at the formation of speech utterances).
Development of motivation for speech activity, aimed at overcoming speech negativism, stimulation of speech activity.
Integrated MSP approach.
Taking into account the structure of the defect.
Sequences, stages in work.
Interdisciplinary approach to the study and correction of speech disorders
Speech therapy as a science does not exist in isolation, on its own, but develops in close interaction with other related sciences.
1. Speech therapy is closely related to the medical and biological cycle of sciences.
Speech therapy studies speech pathology, and medicine reveals the causes of pathology. For example, the cause of dysarthria is organic damage to the central nervous system. A conclusion about the presence of an organic lesion is given by a neurologist. An otolaryngologist gives an opinion on the state of physical hearing, and a psychiatrist gives an opinion on the state of intelligence.
Thus, neuropathology and psychopathologists make it possible to reveal the features of the development of the nervous system, the nature of behavior, the emotional-volitional sphere, and the nature of the child’s pathology. Helps to distinguish a primary speech defect from secondary speech disorders that accompany more severe pathology.
Knowledge about the presence or absence of organic damage to the nervous system allows us to make a forecast about the effectiveness of the ongoing correctional and speech therapy intervention, draw a conclusion about the need for medical support, and allow us to develop a system of correctional intervention that is adequate for this defect.
2. Speech therapy is closely related to linguistic sciences.
So, when examining a child with speech pathology, we identify the state of all components of the language system - phonetics, vocabulary, grammar, and the formation of coherent speech. At the same time, we are based on knowledge of linguistic sciences, such sections as phonetics, vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, morphology, syntax, etc.
3. Speech therapy is closely related to the psychological and pedagogical cycle of sciences.
From PPC sciences we take data on how a child’s speech develops normally. How non-speech processes that are closely related to speech processes (memory, attention, perception, thinking) develop normally. And we take this from general developmental psychology. When examining a child, we constantly compare the level of development with the norm. Based on this, we make a conclusion about the presence or absence of pathology.
Knowing the structure of the defect and the age-related characteristics of children’s development, we develop methods of correctional education. At the same time, we make sure to use the general didactic principles of pedagogy: accessibility, clarity, consistency, systematicity, the transition from simple to complex. We take this data from general pedagogy.
Speech therapy is closely related to other sections of special pedagogy - oligophrenopedagogy, deaf pedagogy, as well as special psychology.
Speech disorders are diverse in their manifestations and, often, speech pathology is not a leading, but a concomitant disorder (in cases of stroke, in hearing-impaired children, with cerebral palsy). These children have pronounced speech disorders, which are secondary.
Speech therapists have the right to adapt and use all the results developed in the field of oligophrenopedagogy, deaf pedagogy, and special psychology in their work (phonorhythmics, etc.).
Speech therapy is closely related to the science of neuropsychology.
Neuropsychology studies the localization of HMF in the cerebral cortex, as well as the peculiarities of the functioning of these areas. A special branch of neuropsychology is neurolinguistics. This is a science that studies how phonetics, vocabulary (dictionary), and grammar are organized in our brain.
The scientific and theoretical basis of speech therapy is determined by the pedagogical nature of this science, that is, speech therapy itself, as well as the essence of its subject, goals, and objectives. The scientific and theoretical foundations include the provisions of various sciences.
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SCIENTIFIC AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF Speech Therapy.
The scientific and theoretical basis of speech therapy is determined by the pedagogical nature of this science, that is, speech therapy itself, as well as the essence of its subject, goals, and objectives. The scientific and theoretical foundations include the provisions of various sciences.
The first theoretical basis of speech therapy- the position of psychology - about speech, its types, functions, as well as the connection between speech and other mental processes. Speech is considered as a HMF; therefore, it is provided by the complex structure of the functional system. Speech formation during life depends on the social situation of the child’s development. Speech - this is the highest mental function, which is the main means of expressing thoughts.
Speech is a voluntary function and in the process of ontogenesis develops from simple forms of oral speech to complex types of speech activity, both oral and written.
Speech is divided into impressive (perception, understanding, reading) and expressive (that is, one’s own speaking, writing) form.The largest division of speech into types is its division into oral and written, represented by reading and writing.Oral speech is divided depending on the complexity of its construction:
1. Dialogical speech - two or more partners interact.
2. Monologue speech is a coherent speech utterance by one person.
For speech therapy, it is important to identify other types of speech:
Reflected speech; conjugate speech (choral); independent speech.
Speech performs the following functions:
The first basic function is the communicative function (within the communicative function, informational and regulating speech is distinguished). The communicative function of speech appears very first in ontogenesis. It is this function that suffers primarily in various oral speech disorders, but it suffers especially severely in OSD (1-2 level of speech development), open rhinolalia, pseudobulbar dysarthria, and stuttering.
The 2nd function of speech is cognitive. Speech begins to be used by a child for cognition at an early age of 3 years (Why?). Speech becomes a means for the development of thinking.
The 3rd function of speech is metalinguistic. Metalanguage is language, speech is about speech. Using speech to indicate its patterns and rules. The metalinguistic function normally begins to develop in preschool age, this is especially evident at 6-7 years of age and then continues to develop at school age. Its development is facilitated by language learning.
In speech therapy, the use of the metalinguistic function is very important in the process of correcting speech deficiencies in children. This function is formed in children in a complex and time-consuming manner.
First of all, speech is connected with thinking, therefore any underdevelopment of the intellect has a negative impact on the underdevelopment of speech. Manifests itself in children with mental retardation and disability.
Speech is associated with other cognitive processes, namely memory, different types of perception, and imagination. Speech impairment, especially in the form of OHP, negatively affects the development of these cognitive mental processes. Deficiencies in memory, especially operational memory, as well as auditory and visual memory, in turn, hinder speech development (in particular, this negatively affects the development of vocabulary).
Deficiencies in visual perception, as well as in the functions of spatial analysis and synthesis, can cause reading and writing disorders.
Thus, the psychological aspect of the theoretical basis of speech therapy is important:
Firstly, for the correct approach to distinguishing impaired speech development from normal speech development or from ontogenesis.
Secondly, to implement a systematic approach to the diagnosis and correction of speech disorders.
Thirdly, to take into account the role of other mental functions in the correction and development of speech (in particular, taking into account the personal component, i.e. the attitude of a child or adult to his deficiency and the motivation for correctional work to overcome this disorder).
The second theoretical basis of speech therapy is the position on the anatomical and physiological foundations of speech.
According to this position, speech is realized by complex structural formations or functional systems into which the central and peripheral sections are combined.
Central departmentrepresented by the brain, cerebral cortex, subcortical and stem formations, the main function of which is to program and clarify programs for various speech actions.
The frontal prefrontal regions of the cerebral cortex provide general semantic programs for speech utterances, their sequence, purposefulness and control. The temporal regions of the cortex of the left hemisphere provide phonemic perception, therefore, the recognition of linguistic units in oral speech. The motor departments provide the choice of articulatory programs and switching from one articulation to another during the speaking process. The occipital cortex of the left hemisphere performs the function of letter discrimination. The pathways connecting the cerebral cortex with the nuclei of the cerebral nerves (located in the medulla oblongata) ensure the transmission of speech motor programs, the refinement of which occurs in the cerebellum (motion coordination). From the nuclei of the brain nerves begins the peripheral path to the executive organs, to the peripheral muscles of the peripheral apparatus (respiratory, vocal, articulatory). Nervus vagus regulates respiratory function. Glossopharyngeal and vagus nerve- muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate. In addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue, and the vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the respiratory and cardiac organs. Trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles that move the lower jaw. Facial nerve - facial muscles, including muscles that perform lip movements, puffing and retracting the cheeks. Accessory nerve innervates the muscles of the neck. Sublingual the nerve supplies the muscles of the tongue with motor nerves and gives it the possibility of a variety of movements.
Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one. Nerve impulses move the speech organs.
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections:1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-producing). The respiratory section includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. The vocal section consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it. The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are movable, the rest are immobile.
Thus, the anatomical and physiological foundations provide an idea of the normal structure of the speech functional system, which is important both for the diagnosis and correction of speech disorders, with simple defects in sound pronunciation, and with complex disorders such as stuttering, sensory and motor alalia.
The third basis is the psycholinguistic basis.
Psycholinguistics studies speech activity from the point of view of the relationship between the processes of speech production and speech perception in connection with the personality, that is, it studies the features and patterns of language use in the speech activity of the individual. From a psycholinguistic point of view, an assessment is made of the role of motivation in speech activity, the role of conditions that contribute to increasing the child’s speech motivation, and the role of communicative and social factors in overcoming speech deficiencies. In the same direction, mechanisms of self-control and self-correction of speech deficiencies are considered.
4th neuropsychological basis for understanding the brain organization of speech.
Neuropsychology provides information about the current understanding of the brain mechanisms of speech disorders.
For example: it has been established that writing impairment in primary schoolchildren can be caused not only by specific deficiencies in phonemic perception, hearing, visual-spatial analysis and synthesis, but also by the immaturity of regulatory mechanisms that are provided by the third functional block of the brain. In this connection, the regulatory form of dysgraphia is distinguished. For example, T.V. Akhutina (2001), from the perspective of a neuropsychological approach, identified variants of writing difficulties that are often encountered in children, but mechanisms that are rarely discussed in speech therapy (pedagogical) literature. In particular, the author identified the difficulties of writing by typeregulatory dysgraphia, due to the lack of formation of voluntary regulation of actions (planning and control functions).
5th neurological basis of speech pathology (neuropathology and psychopathology).
Data from neuropathology and psychopathology are taken into account in the analysis of speech disorders in the clinical picture of various neurological and psychiatric disorders: stuttering, aphasia-type speech breakdown, with RDA, with early forms of schizophrenia, with stroke.
The 6th theoretical basis of speech therapy is linguistic principlesabout phonetic, lexical, and grammatical systems of language; about the laws of structure and rules of use of linguistic means.Linguistic foundations are important for determining the content and sequence of work on various language units and various language activities.
For example: garden-garden-gardener. (word formation)
The 7th theoretical basis of speech therapy is the provisions of special psychology on the structure and patterns of dysontogenesis for the theory and practice of speech therapy.
According to the provisions of special psychology, a deficiency of one impaired function, in this case speech, is considered as a primary defect. In the absence or insufficient effectiveness of correctional work, this primary defect can cause secondary disorders: delay in intellectual development, distortions in personality development.
The provisions of special psychology are important for the correct assessment of the relationship between the current level of development of a child with a speech disorder and his potential capabilities, subject to the provision of special correctional assistance.
The 8th basis of speech therapy is the pedagogical foundations of raising and teaching children with speech disorders:
Special correctional pedagogy is a generic concept of speech therapy, therefore speech therapy uses all the principles of correctional pedagogy. She uses methods adopted in special pedagogy for teaching and raising children with speech disorders.
Thus, the scientific and theoretical foundations of speech therapy are interdisciplinary in nature, which can be designated as clinical-psychological-pedagogical, anatomical-physiological and linguistic.
Pedagogical institutes at the faculties of preschool education train specialists in the field of preschool pedagogy and psychology: senior kindergarten teacher, head teacher, methodologist, preschool pedagogical school teacher. It is clear that these specialists must constantly be in the field of view of the formation of children’s speech, which is the most important component of mental education. Moreover, they need to know ways to prevent speech disorders in preschoolers, as well as methods for recognizing and eliminating defects. In this regard, the textbook focuses on the problems of speech disorders in children from birth to seven years. A special place is occupied by the issues of prevention of speech disorders.
When writing the manual, the authors were guided by the number of teaching hours allocated to this discipline, and did not pursue the goal of exhaustively presenting all the problems of speech pathology in children. At the same time, they considered it necessary to illuminate the essence of each defect, characterize the features of its manifestation in preschool children, and reveal methods of identification and elimination.
The manual introduces students to various types of speech therapy institutions, where it is necessary to promptly refer children with various forms of speech disorders. An independent section highlights the issues of developing correct speech in children in a general kindergarten.
The presentation of each topic of the manual ends with control questions and assignments for students’ independent work, as well as a list of additional literature.
The assignments are designed in such a way as to encourage students to engage in various forms of work with specialized literature, to familiarize themselves with various types of speech anomalies and independently identify them, and to study the work experience of speech therapists. Completion of assignments by students will help improve their theoretical and practical training. Assistance in completing assignments is provided by the teacher during consultation hours and practical classes, and control over their implementation is provided during tests.
Chapter I. Introduction to speech therapy speech therapy, its subject, tasks, methods Speech therapy is the science of speech development disorders, their overcoming and prevention through special correctional training and education.
Speech therapy is one of the sections of special pedagogy - defectology. The term speech therapy is derived from the Greek words: logos (word, speech), paydeo (educate, teach), which translated means “speech education.”
The subject of speech therapy as a scientific discipline is the study of the patterns of training and education of persons with speech disorders and associated deviations in mental development. Speech therapy is divided into preschool, school and adult speech therapy.
The foundations of preschool speech therapy as a pedagogical science were developed by R. E. Levina and are based on the teachings of L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria and A. A. Leontyev about the complex hierarchical structure of speech activity.
In psychology, two forms of speech are distinguished: external and internal. External speech includes the following types: oral (dialogue and monologue) and written.
Dialogical speech, the psychologically simplest and most natural form of speech, occurs during direct communication between two or more interlocutors and consists mainly of the exchange of remarks.
A response - an answer, an objection, a remark to the words of the interlocutor - is distinguished by its brevity, the presence of interrogative and incentive sentences, and syntactically undeveloped constructions.
The distinctive features of the dialogue are:
The emotional contact of speakers, their impact on each other with facial expressions, gestures, intonation and timbre of voice,
Situational, i.e. the subject or topic of discussion exists in joint activity or is directly perceived.
The dialogue is supported by the interlocutors with the help of clarifying questions, changing the situation and the intentions of the speakers. Purposeful dialogue related to one topic is called a conversation. Conversation participants discuss or clarify a specific problem using specially selected questions.
Monologue speech is a consistent, coherent presentation by one person of a system of knowledge. Monologue speech is characterized by: consistency and evidence, which ensure coherence of thought; grammatically correct formatting; expressiveness of vocal means. Monologue speech is more complex than dialogical speech in content and linguistic design and always presupposes a fairly high level of speech development of the speaker.
There are three main types of monologue speech: narration (story, message), description and reasoning, which in turn are divided into a number of subtypes that have their own linguistic, compositional and intonation-expressive features.
With speech defects, monologue speech is impaired to a greater extent than dialogic speech.
Written speech is graphically designed speech, organized on the basis of letter images. It is addressed to a wide range of readers, is not situational and requires in-depth skills of sound-letter analysis, the ability to logically and grammatically correctly convey one’s thoughts, analyze what is written and improve the form of expression.
The full assimilation of writing and written speech is closely related to the level of development of oral speech. During the period of mastering oral speech, a preschool child unconsciously processes language material, accumulates sound and morphological generalizations, which create readiness to master writing at school age. When speech is underdeveloped, writing impairments of varying severity usually occur.
Internal form of speech (speaking to oneself)- this is silent speech that occurs when a person thinks about something, mentally makes plans. Inner speech is distinguished by its structure by being convoluted and by the absence of minor members of the sentence.
Inner speech is formed in a child on the basis of external speech and is one of the main mechanisms of thinking.
The transfer of external speech into internal speech is observed in a child at the age of about 3 years, when he begins to reason out loud and plan his actions in speech. Gradually, such pronunciation is reduced and begins to take place in inner speech.
With the help of internal speech, the process of transforming thoughts into speech and preparing a speech utterance is carried out. Preparation goes through several stages. The starting point for the preparation of each speech utterance is a motive or intention, which is known to the speaker only in the most general terms. Then, in the process of transforming a thought into a statement, the stage of internal speech begins, which is characterized by the presence of semantic representations that reflect its most essential content. Next, from a larger number of potential semantic connections, the most necessary ones are identified and the appropriate syntactic structures are selected.
On this basis, an external speech utterance is built at the phonological and phonetic level with a detailed grammatical structure, i.e., sound speech is formed. This process can be significantly disrupted in any of these links in children and adults who have insufficient speech experience or severe speech pathology.
The development of a child’s speech can be presented in several aspects related to the gradual acquisition of language.
The first aspect is the development of phonemic hearing and the formation of skills in pronouncing phonemes of the native language.
The second aspect is mastering vocabulary and syntax rules. Active mastery of lexical and grammatical patterns begins in a child at 2–3 years of age and ends by 7 years of age. At school age, acquired skills are improved on the basis of written speech.
Closely related to the second aspect is the third, which is associated with mastering the semantic side of speech. It is most pronounced during schooling.
In the mental development of a child, speech is of enormous importance, performing three main functions: communicative, generalizing and regulating.
Deviations in speech development affect the formation of the child’s entire mental life. They make it difficult to communicate with others, often interfere with the correct formation of cognitive processes, and affect the emotional-volitional sphere. Under the influence of a speech defect, a number of secondary deviations often arise, which form a picture of the abnormal development of the child as a whole. Secondary manifestations of speech deficiency are overcome by pedagogical means, and the effectiveness of their elimination is directly related to the early identification of the structure of the defect.
The main tasks of speech therapy are as follows:
Studying the patterns of special education and upbringing of children with speech disorders;
Determination of the prevalence and symptoms of speech disorders in children of preschool and school age;
Study of the structure of speech disorders and the influence of speech disorders on the mental development of the child;
Development of methods for pedagogical diagnosis of speech disorders and typology of speech disorders;
Development of scientifically based methods for eliminating and preventing various forms of speech impairment;
Organization of speech therapy assistance.
The practical aspect of speech therapy is to prevent, identify and eliminate speech disorders. Theoretical and practical tasks of speech therapy are interconnected.
Overcoming and preventing speech disorders contribute to the harmonious development of the creative powers of the individual, eliminating obstacles to the realization of his social orientation and the acquisition of knowledge. Therefore, speech therapy, being a branch of defectology, at the same time participates in solving general pedagogical problems.
Disadvantages in speech development should be understood as deviations from the normal formation of linguistic means of communication. The concept of speech development deficiencies includes not only oral speech, but in many cases implies violations of its written form.
The changes in speech considered in speech therapy should be distinguished from age-related features of its formation. This or that difficulty in using speech can be considered as a disadvantage only taking into account age norms. Moreover, for different speech processes the age limit may not be the same.
The direction and content of pedagogical research on speech pathology in children are determined by the principles of their analysis, which constitute the method of speech therapy science: 1) the principle of development; 2) the principle of a systematic approach; 3) the principle of considering speech disorders in the relationship of speech with other aspects of mental development.
The development principle involves analyzing the process of the occurrence of a defect. To correctly assess the genesis of a particular deviation, as noted by L. S. Vygotsky, one should distinguish between the origin of developmental changes and these changes themselves, their sequential formation and cause-and-effect dependencies between them.
To carry out a genetic cause-and-effect analysis, it is important to imagine the variety of conditions necessary for the full formation of speech function at each stage of its development.
The principle of a systems approach. In the complex structure of speech activity, the manifestations that make up sound activity are distinguished, i.e. pronunciation, side of speech, phonemic processes, vocabulary and grammatical structure. Speech disorders can affect each of these components. Thus, some deficiencies concern only pronunciation processes and are expressed in violations of speech intelligibility without any accompanying manifestations. Others affect the phonemic system of the language and manifest themselves not only in pronunciation defects, but also in insufficient mastery of the sound composition of the word, which entails reading and writing impairments. At the same time, there are violations that cover both the phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical systems and are expressed in general underdevelopment of speech.
Application of the principle of systemic analysis of speech disorders allows timely identification of complications in the formation of certain aspects of speech.
Early recognition of possible deviations both in oral and later in written speech allows them to be prevented using pedagogical techniques.
Studying the nature of a speech defect involves analyzing the connections
Existing between various disorders, understanding the significance of these connections. Speech therapy is based here on the patterns expressed in the concept of systematic language.
The principle of approaching speech disorders from the standpoint of the connection between speech and other aspects of mental development. Speech activity is formed and functions in close connection with the entire psyche of the child, with its various processes occurring in the sensory, intellectual, affective-volitional spheres. These connections are manifested not only in normal, but also in abnormal development.
Discovering the connections between speech disorders and other aspects of mental activity helps to find ways to influence the mental processes involved in the formation of a speech defect.
Along with the direct correction of speech disorders, the speech therapist needs to influence those deviations in mental development that directly or indirectly interfere with the normal functioning of speech activity.
Special training in speech therapy is closely related to correctional and educational influence, the direction and content of which are determined by the dependence of speech disorders on the characteristics of other aspects of the child’s mental activity.
Speech therapy has close interdisciplinary connections with other sciences, primarily with psychology, pedagogy, linguistics, psycholinguistics, linguistics, speech physiology, and various fields of medicine.
An integrated approach to the study and overcoming of speech disorders presupposes knowledge of the theoretical achievements of each of the above-mentioned branches of science and the coordinated development of practical measures.
Data from the psychology of thinking, perception, and memory are widely used in speech therapy. The linguistic basis of speech therapy is the phonological theory of language, the doctrine of the complex structure of speech activity, and the process of generating speech utterances.
The need to have a good understanding of the causes, mechanisms, etc. symptoms of speech pathology, be able to differentiate primary speech underdevelopment from similar conditions with mental retardation, hearing loss, mental disorders, etc. the connection between speech therapy and medicine is determined (psychiatry, neurology, otolaryngology, etc.). A speech therapist must navigate a wide range of issues related to the development of the child’s body, the patterns of formation of the child’s higher mental functions, and the characteristics of behavior in a team.
Correction of speech defects in children is carried out using teaching and educational methods. The skillful use of general didactic principles developed in general and preschool pedagogy is of great importance.
In speech therapy, various forms of influence have been developed: education, training, correction, compensation, adaptation, rehabilitation. In preschool speech therapy, education, training and correction are mainly used.
The level of pedagogical qualifications of the teacher and speech therapist is of great importance for the implementation of full-fledged speech therapy. When working with a complex group of children, the teacher must have professional knowledge in the field of speech therapy and defectology, have a good knowledge of the psychological characteristics of children, show patience and love for children, and constantly feel civic responsibility for the success of their education, upbringing and preparation for life and work.
Causes of speech disorders Among the factors contributing to the occurrence of speech disorders in children, there are unfavorable external (exogenous) and internal (endogenous) factors, as well as external environmental conditions.
When considering the diverse causes of speech pathology, an evolutionary-dynamic approach is used, which consists of analyzing the very process of the occurrence of the defect, taking into account the general patterns of abnormal development and patterns of speech development at each age stage (I. M. Sechenov, L. S. Vygotsky, V. I. Lubovsky).
It is also necessary to subject the conditions surrounding the child to special study.
The principle of the unity of biological and social in the process of formation of mental (including speech) processes allows us to determine the influence of the speech environment, communication, emotional contact and other factors on the maturation of the speech system. Examples of the unfavorable impact of the speech environment include underdevelopment of speech in hearing children raised by deaf parents, in long-term ill and frequently hospitalized children, the development of stuttering in a child during long-term traumatic situations in the family, etc.
In preschool children, speech is a vulnerable functional system and is easily subject to adverse influences. We can distinguish some types of speech defects that arise from imitation, for example, defects in the pronunciation of the sounds l, r, accelerated rate of speech, etc. Speech function most often suffers during critical periods of its development, which create predisposing conditions for “breakdown” of speech in 1–2 , at 3 and at 6 - 7 years.
Let us briefly describe the main causes of child speech pathology:
1. Various intrauterine pathologies that lead to impaired fetal development. The most severe speech defects occur when fetal development is disrupted in the period from 4 weeks. up to 4 months The occurrence of speech pathology is facilitated by toxicosis during pregnancy, viral and endocrine diseases, injuries, blood incompatibility according to the Rh factor, etc.
2. Birth trauma and asphyxia (FOOTNOTE: Asphyxia is a lack of oxygen supply to the brain due to breathing problems) during childbirth, which leads to intracranial hemorrhage.
3. Various diseases in the first years of a child’s life.
Depending on the time of exposure and the location of brain damage, speech defects of various types occur. Particularly detrimental to speech development are frequent infectious viral diseases, meningo-encephalitis and early gastrointestinal disorders.
4. Skull injuries accompanied by concussion.
5. Hereditary factors.
In these cases, speech disorders may constitute only part of the general nervous system disorder and be combined with intellectual and motor impairment.
6. Unfavorable social and living conditions leading to microsocial pedagogical neglect, autonomic dysfunction, disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere and deficits in speech development.
Each of these reasons, and often their combination, can cause disturbances in various aspects of speech.
When analyzing the causes of disturbances, one should take into account the relationship between the speech defect and intact analyzers and functions, which can be a source of compensation during remedial training.
Early diagnosis of various speech development anomalies is of great importance. If speech defects are detected only when the child enters school or in the lower grades, it can be difficult to compensate for them, which negatively affects academic performance. If deviations are detected in a child in nursery or preschool age, early medical and pedagogical correction significantly increases the likelihood of full-fledged education at school.
Early identification of children with developmental disabilities is primarily carried out in families with “increased risk”. These include:
1) families where there is already a child with one or another defect;
2) families with mental retardation, schizophrenia, hearing impairment in one of the parents or in both;
3) families where mothers suffered an acute infectious disease or severe toxicosis during pregnancy;
4) families with children who have suffered intrauterine hypoxia (FOOTNOTE: Hypoxia - oxygen starvation), natural asphyxia, trauma or neuroinfection, traumatic brain injury in the first months of life.
Our country is consistently implementing measures to protect the health of mothers and children. Among them, first of all, medical examinations of pregnant women suffering from chronic diseases, periodic hospitalization of women with a negative Rh factor and many others should be mentioned.
In the prevention of speech development anomalies, clinical examination of children who have suffered birth injuries plays an important role.
Of great importance for preventing the birth of children with speech defects is the dissemination of knowledge about the causes and signs of speech pathology among doctors, teachers and the population as a whole.
Classification of speech disorders It is known that speech disorders are diverse in nature, depending on their degree, on the localization of the affected function, on the time of the lesion, on the severity of secondary deviations that arise under the influence of the leading defect.
Since speech disorders have long remained the subject of study in disciplines of the medical and biological cycle, the clinical classification of speech disorders has become widespread (M. E. Khvattsev, F. A. Pay, O. V. Pravdina, S. S. Lyapidevsky, B. M. Grinshpun, etc.). Clinical classification is based on the study of the causes (etiology) and pathological manifestations (pathogenesis) speech failure. Various forms are distinguished (kinds) speech pathologies, each of which has its own symptoms and dynamics of manifestations. These are voice disorders, speech rate disorders, stuttering, dyslalia, rhinolalia, dysarthria, alalia, aphasia, writing and reading disorders (agraphia and dysgraphia, alexia and dyslexia). In accordance with the characteristics of the disorder, techniques and methods of correctional and speech therapy work have been developed for each form.
Currently, in our country, the psychological and pedagogical classification of speech disorders is used as the basis for staffing special speech therapy institutions and for the use of frontal methods of influence. It was developed by R. E. Levina and is based on identifying, first of all, those signs of speech deficiency that are important for the implementation of a unified pedagogical approach.
Based on psycholinguistic criteria - violations of linguistic means of communication and violations in the use of means of communication in the process of speech communication - speech defects are divided into two groups. The first group includes the following disorders: phonetic underdevelopment; phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment; general speech underdevelopment.
The second group includes stuttering, in which the basis of the defect is a violation of the communicative function of speech while maintaining linguistic means of communication.
The psychological and pedagogical classification has opened up wide opportunities for the introduction into speech therapy practice of scientifically based frontal methods of correctional influence on impaired speech and other mental functions of preschool and school-age children. From the point of view of psychological and pedagogical classification, the most significant question is which components of the speech system are affected, underdeveloped or impaired. Adhering to this approach, the teacher has the opportunity to clearly imagine the direction of correctional education in each category of defects: with general speech underdevelopment, with phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment, with deficiencies in the pronunciation of sounds.
Each group of defects, in turn, differs in shape (nature) violations and the degree of its severity.
Clinical and psychological-pedagogical classifications of speech disorders complement each other.
Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speechKnowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech, i.e., the structure and functional organization of speech activity, allows, firstly, to imagine the complex mechanism of speech in normal conditions, secondly, a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech pathology and, thirdly , correctly determine the paths of corrective action.
Speech is one of the complex higher mental functions of a person.
The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which the main, leading role belongs to the activity of the brain.
Back at the beginning of the 20th century. There was a widespread point of view according to which the function of speech was associated with the existence of special “isolated speech centers” in the brain. I. P. Pavlov gave a new direction to this view, proving that the localization of speech functions of the cerebral cortex is not only very complex, but also changeable, which is why he called it “dynamic localization.”
Currently, thanks to the research of P.K. Anokhin, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria and other scientists, it has been established that the basis of any higher mental function is not individual “centers”, but complex functional systems that are located in various areas central nervous system, at its various levels and are united by the unity of working action.
Speech is a special and most perfect form of communication, inherent only to humans. In the process of verbal communication (communications) people exchange thoughts and influence each other. Speech communication is carried out through language. Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The speaker selects the words necessary to express a thought, connects them according to the rules of the grammar of the language, and pronounces them through articulation of the speech organs.
In order for a person’s speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be natural and accurate. At the same time, these movements must be automatic, that is, those that would be carried out without special voluntary efforts. This is what actually happens. Usually the speaker only follows the flow of thought, without thinking about what position his tongue should take in his mouth, when he needs to inhale, etc. This occurs as a result of the action of the mechanism of speech production. To understand the mechanism of speech production, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the structure of the speech apparatus.
Structure of the speech apparatus The speech apparatus consists of two closely interconnected parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and peripheral (or executive) (Fig. 1).
The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly left hemisphere), subcortical nodes, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.
What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments?
Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of primary importance in the formation of speech. These are the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of the predominantly left hemisphere of the brain (left-handed right-handed). Frontal gyri (lower) are a motor area and participate in the formation of one’s own oral speech (Brock's center). Temporal gyri (top) are the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke Center). Thanks to this, the process of perceiving someone else's speech is carried out. The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important for understanding speech. The occipital lobe is the visual area and mediates the acquisition of written language. (perception of letter images when reading and writing). In addition, the child begins to develop speech thanks to his visual perception of the articulation of adults.
The subcortical nuclei control the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.
Conducting pathways. The cerebral cortex is connected to the speech organs (peripheral) two types of nerve pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.
Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal pathway begins in the cerebral cortex in Broca's center.
From the periphery to the center, i.e. from the region of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, centripetal paths go.
The centripetal pathway begins in the proprioceptors and baroreceptors.
Proprioceptors are found inside muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs.
Rice. 1. Structure of the speech apparatus: 1 – brain: 2 – nasal cavity: 3 – hard palate; 4 – oral cavity; 5 – lips; 6 – incisors; 7 – tip of the tongue; 8 – back of the tongue; 9 – root of the tongue; 10 – epiglottis: 11 – pharynx; 12 – larynx; 13 – trachea; 14 – right bronchus; 15 – right lung: 16 – diaphragm; 17 – esophagus; 18 – spine; 19 – spinal cord; 20 – soft palate
Proprioceptors are excited by muscle contractions. Thanks to proprioceptors, all our muscle activity is controlled. Baroreceptors are excited by changes in pressure on them and are located in the pharynx. When we speak, the proprioceptor baroreceptors are stimulated, which follows a centripetal path to the cerebral cortex. The centripetal path plays the role of a general regulator of all activities of the speech organs,
The cranial nerves originate in the nuclei of the brainstem. All organs of the peripheral speech apparatus are innervated (FOOTNOTE: Innervation is the provision of any organ or tissue with nerve fibers and cells.) cranial nerves. The main ones are: trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and sublingual.
The trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles that move the lower jaw; facial nerve - facial muscles, including muscles that carry out lip movements, puffing and retraction of the cheeks; glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate. In addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue, and the vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the respiratory and cardiac organs. The accessory nerve innervates the muscles of the neck, and the hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles of the tongue with motor nerves and gives it the possibility of a variety of movements.
Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one. Nerve impulses move the speech organs.
But this path from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one constitutes only one part of the speech mechanism. Another part of it is feedback - from the periphery to the center.
Now let's turn to the structure of the peripheral speech apparatus (executive).
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-producing).
The respiratory section includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea.
Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions. (in addition to another, main one - gas exchange). Breathing during speech is significantly different from usual when a person is silent. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation (while outside of speech the duration of inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same). In addition, at the time of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal (no speech) breathing.
It is clear that for a longer exhalation a larger supply of air is needed. Therefore, at the time of speech, the volume of inhaled and exhaled air increases significantly (about 3 times). The inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Another feature of speech breathing is that exhalation at the moment of speech is carried out with the active participation of the expiratory muscles (abdominal wall and internal intercostal muscles). This ensures its greatest duration and depth and, in addition, increases the pressure of the air stream, without which sonorous speech is impossible.
The vocal section consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it. The larynx is a wide, short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissue. It is located in the front of the neck and can be felt through the skin from the front and sides, especially in thin people.
From above the larynx passes into the pharynx. From below it passes into the windpipe (trachea).
At the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis. It consists of cartilage tissue shaped like a tongue or petal. Its front surface faces the tongue, and its back surface faces the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending during the swallowing movement, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.
In children before puberty (i.e. puberty) There are no differences in the size and structure of the larynx between boys and girls.
In general, in children, the larynx is small and grows unevenly at different periods. Its noticeable growth occurs at the age of 5–7 years, and then during puberty: in girls at 12–13 years, in boys at 13–15 years. At this time, the size of the larynx increases in girls by one third, and in boys by two thirds, the vocal folds lengthen; In boys, the Adam's apple begins to appear.
In young children, the larynx is funnel-shaped. As the child grows, the shape of the larynx gradually approaches cylindrical.
How is voice formation carried out? (or phonation)? The mechanism of voice formation is as follows. During phonation, the vocal folds are closed (Fig. 2). A stream of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. Due to their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original, i.e., median, position, so that, as a result of the continued pressure of the exhaled air stream, they again move apart, etc. Closures and openings continue until the pressure of the voice-forming exhalatory stream stops. Thus, during phonation, vibrations of the vocal folds occur. These vibrations occur in the transverse, and not longitudinal, direction, that is, the vocal folds move inward and outward, and not up and down.
When whispering, the vocal folds do not close along their entire length: in the back part between them there remains a gap in the shape of a small equilateral triangle, through which the exhaled stream of air passes. The vocal folds do not vibrate, but the friction of the air stream against the edges of the small triangular slit causes noise, which we perceive as a whisper.
The strength of the voice depends mainly on the amplitude (span) vibrations of the vocal folds, which is determined by the amount of air pressure, i.e., the force of exhalation. The resonator cavities of the extension pipe also have a significant influence on the strength of the voice. (pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity), which are sound amplifiers.
The size and shape of the resonator cavities, as well as the structural features of the larynx, affect the individual “color” of the voice, or timbre. It is thanks to timbre that we distinguish people by their voices.
The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and this in turn depends on their length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker they are and the less tense they are, the lower the voice sound.
Rice. 3. Profile of articulation organs: 1 – lips. 2 - incisors, 3 - alveoli, 4 - hard palate, 5 - soft palate, 6 - vocal folds, 7 - root of the tongue. 8 – back of the tongue, 9 – tip of the tongue
Articulation department. The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (top and bottom), hard and soft palate, alveoli. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are movable, the rest are immobile. (Fig. 3).
The main organ of articulation is the tongue. The tongue is a massive muscular organ. When the jaws are closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is mobile, the back part is fixed and is called the root of the tongue. The movable part of the tongue is divided into the tip, the anterior edge (blade), side edges and back. The complexly intertwined system of tongue muscles and the variety of their attachment points provide the ability to change the shape, position and degree of tension of the tongue within a wide range. This is very important, since the tongue is involved in the formation of all vowels and almost all consonants (except labials). An important role in the formation of speech sounds also belongs to the lower jaw, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, and alveoli. Articulation consists in the fact that the listed organs form slits, or closures, that occur when the tongue approaches or touches the palate, alveoli, teeth, as well as when the lips are compressed or pressed against the teeth.
The volume and clarity of speech sounds are created thanks to resonators. Resonators are located throughout the extension pipe.
The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.
In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals (for example, in a monkey) the cavities of the pharynx and mouth are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - the extension tube. It performs the important function of a speech resonator. The extension pipe in humans was formed as a result of evolution.
Due to its structure, the extension pipe can vary in volume and shape. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe create the phenomenon of resonance. As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are enhanced, while others are muffled. Thus, a specific speech timbre of sounds arises. For example, when pronouncing the sound a, the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and elongates. And when pronouncing a sound, and vice versa, the oral cavity contracts and the pharynx expands.
The larynx alone does not create a specific speech sound; it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in the resonators (pharyngeal, oral and nasal).
The extension pipe performs a dual function in the formation of speech sounds: a resonator and a noise vibrator (the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds, which are located in the larynx).
The noise vibrator is the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and the teeth, between the tongue and the hard palate, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the closures between these organs broken by a stream of air.
Using a noise vibrator, voiceless consonants are formed. When simultaneously turning on the tone vibrator (vocal fold vibrations) voiced and sonorant consonants are formed.
The oral cavity and pharynx take part in the pronunciation of all sounds of the Russian language. If a person has correct pronunciation, then the nasal resonator is involved only in pronouncing the sounds m and n and their soft variants. When pronouncing other sounds, the velum palatine, formed by the soft palate and the small uvula, closes the entrance to the nasal cavity.
So, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second to form the voice, the third is a resonator that gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus.
Speech therapy is based on the following basic principles: systematicity, complexity, development principle, consideration of speech disorders in connection with other aspects of the child’s mental development, activity approach, ontogenetic principle, principle of taking into account etiology and mechanisms (etiopathogenetic principle), principle of taking into account the symptoms of the disorder and the structure of the speech defect , the principle of a workaround, general didactic and other principles.
Let's look at some of them.
Systematic principle is based on the idea of speech as a complex functional system, the structural components of which are in close interaction. In this regard, the study of speech, the process of its development and correction of disorders involves influencing all components, all aspects of the speech functional system.
For a speech therapy conclusion, for the differential diagnosis of similar forms of speech disorders, a correlation analysis of speech and non-speech symptoms, data from a medical, psychological, speech therapy examination, correlation of the levels of development of cognitive activity and speech, the state of speech and the characteristics of the sensorimotor development of the child are necessary.
Speech disorders in many cases are included in the syndrome of nervous and neuropsychiatric diseases (for example, dysarthria, alalia, stuttering, etc.). Elimination of speech disorders in these cases should be comprehensive, medical, psychological and pedagogical in nature.
Thus, when studying and eliminating speech disorders, it is important principle of complexity.
In the process of studying speech disorders and their correction, it is important to take into account the general and specific patterns of development of abnormal children.
Development principle involves identifying in the process of speech therapy work those tasks, difficulties, stages that are in the zone of proximal development of the child.
The study of children with speech disorders, as well as the organization of speech therapy work with them, is carried out taking into account the child’s leading activities (subject-practical, playful, educational).
The development of a methodology for correctional and speech therapy is carried out taking into account the sequence of appearance of the forms and functions of speech, as well as the types of activities of the child in ontogenesis (ontogenetic principle).
The occurrence of speech disorders in many cases is due to a complex interaction of biological and social factors. For successful speech therapy correction of speech disorders, it is of great importance to establish in each individual case the etiology, mechanisms, symptoms of the disorder, identification of leading disorders, ratio of speech and non-speech symptoms in the structure of the defect.
In the process of compensation for impaired speech and non-speech functions, restructuring the activity of functional systems, it is used workaround principle i.e., the formation of a new functional system bypassing the affected link.
An important place in the study and correction of speech disorders is occupied by didactic principles: visibility, accessibility, consciousness, individual approach, etc.
The methods of speech therapy as a science can be divided into several groups.
The first group is organizational methods: comparative, longitudinal (study over time), complex.
The second group consists of empirical methods: observational (observation), experimental (laboratory, natural, formative or psychological-pedagogical experiment), psychodiagnostic (tests, standardized and projective, questionnaires, conversations, interviews), praximetric examples of activity analysis, including speech activities, biographical (collection and analysis of anamnestic data).
The third group includes quantitative (mathematical-statistical) and qualitative analysis of the data obtained; machine data processing using a computer is used.
The fourth group is interpretive methods, methods of theoretical study of connections between the phenomena being studied (the connection between parts and the whole, between individual parameters and the phenomenon as a whole, between functions and personality, etc.).
Technical means are widely used to ensure the objectivity of the study: intonographs, spectographs, nasometers, video speech, phonographs, spirometers and other equipment, as well as X-ray cine photography, glottography, cinematography, electromyography, which make it possible to study the dynamics of integral speech activity and its individual components.
Preface to the second edition
A common part. Basics of speech therapy
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF SPEECH
FORMATION OF THE SOUNDS OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF SPEECH AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF Speech Therapy Work
Speech therapy examination
Planning speech therapy work
Special part: basic speech disorders and methods of speech therapy work
Chapter II SOUND PRONUNCIATION DISORDERS
DYSLALIA
Rhinolalia
DYSARTHRIA
Clinical forms of dysarthria
Pseudobulbar dysarthria
Subcortical dysarthria
Kinetic premotor cortical dysarthria
Pediatric pseudobulbar dysarthria
Chapter iii methods of speech therapy work for violations of sound pronunciation
A set of basic movements.
Methods for staging sounds of different sound groups
METHODOLOGY OF SPEECH PEDIC WORK FOR OPEN RHINOLALIA
METHOD OF Speech Therapy for Dysarthria
Bulbar dysarthria
Pseudobulbar dysarthria
Kinesthetic postcentral cortical dysarthria
Chapter iv. Disorders of rhythm, tempo and fluency of speech
STUTTERING
METHODOLOGY OF Speech Therapy workbl
Overcoming developed stuttering
OTHER METHODS OF WORKING WITH PERSONS WHO STUTTER
Chapter v. Speech impairment due to hearing loss
Features of speech of a hearing-impaired child.
Speech hearing test
METHODOLOGY OF SPEECH PEDIC WORK
Visual perception of speech.
Network of schools for children with hearing impairments
Chapter vi alalia and aphasia
MOTOR ALALIA
DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR ALALIC SPEECH AND METHODOLOGY OF Speech Therapy Work
SENSORY ALALIA
DEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH OF SENSORY ALALIK AND METHODOLOGY OF Speech Therapy Work
Working methods.
CHILDREN'S APHASIA AND Speech Therapy Methodology
Chapter VII VIOLATIONS OF WRITTEN SPEECH
Dysgraphia and dyslexia
Chapter viii: features of speech of a mentally retarded child
ORGANIZATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR Speech therapists of AUXILIARY SCHOOL
Chapter ix Organization of speech therapy assistance to the population in the Soviet Union
Applications
Glossary of Special Terms
Appendix 1 Speech therapist teacher documentation form
Appendix 2 Speech card
Appendix 3 List of equipment for the speech therapy room
Appendix 4 Report on the work of the speech therapy room
Appendix 5 Scheme of speech therapy analysis of major speech disorders
Appendix 8 Sound differentiation
Appendix 9 Vocabulary survey
Pravdina O.V. Speech therapy. Textbook manual for defectologist students. fact-tov ped. Inst. Ed. 2nd, add. and processed – M., “Enlightenment”, 1973. – 272 pp. ill.
The manual summarizes the author’s many years of experience in eliminating speech disorders in children, describes various types of speech disorders, the anatomical and physiological background of these disorders, and provides a methodology for working with children speech pathologists
The book is intended for students of defectology departments of pedagogical institutes and can be used by practicing speech therapists
The textbook is intended for students of defectology and preschool faculties, as well as for practicing speech therapists.
This textbook is a summary of the author’s many years of work on eliminating speech disorders in children.
Many provisions of this manual were deepened and clarified in the joint work of a team of speech therapists and doctors - employees of the Department of Psychopathology and Speech Therapy of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. V. And Lenin, led by Professor S. S. Lyapidevsky.
Medical and pedagogical analysis of various cases of speech disorders in children made it possible to more deeply reveal the nature of the defect and determine targeted speech therapy and medical measures that form the basis of a complex impact.
This manual uses drawings that were published in the works of the following authors: M. E. Khvatsev, E. S. Bein, M. B. Eidinova.
Preface to the second edition
When preparing the second edition of the textbook, the comments and wishes expressed to the author in reviews, letters and private conversations, as well as some new data from medicine and defectology, were taken into account.
In the general part of the textbook, some wording was clarified, the comparative table of speech disorders was worked out and supplemented, and the section on the development of children's speech was also slightly revised in accordance with new scientific data.
In the special part, the division of chapters is organized; the presentation of material on dysarthria has been systematized, according to new scientific data; the material on aphasia is presented more briefly - data on aphasia in adults was removed from it based on the great complexity of this issue and the fact that it is widely reflected in special monographs and teaching aids. The number of subheadings throughout the text has been reduced. This publication provides a dictionary of special terms.
A common part. Basics of speech therapy
Introduction
The term “speech therapy” literally means speech education. Currently, the meaning of this term has become much broader. The subject of speech therapy is the study of the nature and course of various speech disorders and the creation of methods for their prevention and overcoming.
This definition reveals both the theoretical content of speech therapy (the study of speech disorders) and its practical orientation, vital practical significance (preventing and overcoming disorders).
We define a speech disorder as a deviation in the speaker’s speech from the language norm generally accepted in a given language environment. Speech disorders are characterized by:
a) having arisen, they do not disappear on their own, but become fixed;
b) do not correspond to the age of the speaker;
c) require one or another speech therapy intervention depending on their nature;
d) the occurrence of incorrect speech in a child can affect his further development, delaying and distorting it.
These features distinguish deviations in speech impairment from its temporary disorders, which can occur in both children and adults.
In a child, they can manifest themselves in incorrect pronunciation of sounds, use and pronunciation of words, sentence construction, inaccurate and incomplete understanding of the speech of others and characterize a certain stage of development.
An adult, under the influence of fatigue and emotional stress, sometimes begins to lose the right word or use another word instead of one (so-called slips of the tongue; for example, instead of elevator-subway), incorrectly pronounces difficult words, rearranging sounds or entire syllables in them (instead of escalator-exalator, laboratory-work laboratory, etc.). In some cases, the speaker notices his mistakes and corrects them, in others he doesn’t even notice.
After some time, these errors disappear on their own.
The speech of a foreigner in an alien language environment also turns out to be incorrect in many respects, but it differs from impaired speech in that it tends to improve independently as a result of more or less prolonged verbal communication with people using a language new to the foreigner. Special classes can speed up this process. The most persistent shortcoming of a foreigner’s speech is the peculiarities of intonation.
Speech disorders are very diverse, their diversity depends on the complexity of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms involved in the formation and course of the speech act; from the close interaction of the human body with the external environment; from the social conditioning of speech both in terms of its form and content.
In speech therapy practice, the following main speech disorders are distinguished:
2) dyslalia (functional and mechanical);
3) dysarthria of various types;
4) disturbances in the rhythm of tempo and fluency of speech (stuttering, tachylalia, bradyllalia);
5) alalia (motor and sensory);
6) different forms of aphasia;
7) dysgraphia and dyslexia;
8) speech impairment due to hearing loss.
Such manifestations of speech pathology as babbling speech, confusion of sounds, paraphasia (literal and verbal), agrammatisms and others cannot be used as names for individual speech disorders, these are only their individual symptoms.
The causes of speech disorders are divided into organic and functional.
Organic causes are injuries and disease processes that affect various parts of both the speech apparatus itself and parts of the nervous system related to speech function.
Functional speech disorders are considered to be those in which there are no organic changes in the structure of the speech organs or in the nervous system.
The division into organic and functional speech disorders is very arbitrary, since modern research methods cannot always detect mild organic symptoms. In addition, with every organic speech disorder, purely functional disorders develop.
Speech disorders can be central or peripheral.
Centrally caused disorders are said to occur if the lesion occurred in one or another part of the central nervous system; about peripherally caused disorders - when damage or irregularities are observed in the structure of the articulatory apparatus or in the peripheral nerves innervating the organs of articulation.
In the development of a particular speech disorder, importance is attached to heredity if, under additional unfavorable living conditions of the child, heredity contributes to the manifestation of the corresponding speech disorder.
Speech impairment can occur at any age, but speech is most vulnerable in children and the elderly.
The vulnerability of children's speech is due to the fact that speech that takes a long time to develop is one of the most complex human skills; The child's immaturity of speech makes her most sensitive to any difficulties.
The earlier a difficulty arises, the more significant it turns out to be for further speech development.
With old age, structural changes in the nervous system and blood vessels appear, which can lead to speech disorders.
In each speech disorder, the main component of the disorder or primary disorder and secondary phenomena are distinguished. Thus, a pathologically fast pace of speech, being primarily disturbed, often leads to vagueness, unclear sound pronunciation, stuttering, and as speech becomes more complex, distortions of words and unclear semantic meaning of speech appear.
Secondarily impaired components of speech, as a result of the correct pedagogical approach and direct influence on them, are relatively easily leveled out and can even disappear on their own when the primary impaired link is normalized.
A primarily broken link requires the use of special methodological techniques and a longer time to correct it.
Impact on secondary impaired speech components sometimes contributes to some normalization of the main component of the disorder.
The need to overcome a particular speech disorder is dictated by the social meaning of speech, and the possibility of overcoming depends both on the severity of the disorder and on the correct understanding of its essence, which makes it possible to use the most effective means of overcoming it.
Overcoming, and to a large extent preventing, speech disorders is based on the compensatory capabilities of a person, and in particular his brain.
The scale of compensation is very clearly expressed in the statements of I. P. Pavlov: “Many nervous tasks, which at first may seem completely impossible, ultimately, with gradualness and caution, turn out to be satisfactorily solved... nothing remains motionless, inflexible. And everything can always be achieved, change for the better, as long as the appropriate conditions are met” (I. P. Pavlov. Complete collected works, vol. III. M., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1953, p. 454.).
Creating appropriate conditions, i.e., a system of measures for gradual and careful influence on a person suffering from one or another speech disorder, is the main task of speech therapy. Speech therapy is closely related to the sciences of the pedagogical cycle. However, its independence as one of the sections of special pedagogy obliges the speech therapist to strive for close collaboration with related sciences: physiology, psychology, medicine, linguistics.
A speech therapist needs to know: the anatomical and physiological mechanisms underlying speech activity and their changes in cases of pathology; patterns of language and its development in a child and the relationship with speech development; general principles of pedagogical influence.